ADVANCEDBUSHCRAFT
AnExpertFieldGuidetotheArtof
WILDERNESSSURVIVAL
Wildoz Adv
Petualang Indonesia Bushcraft101
DEDICATION
Abookshouldbededicatednotonlytothosefromwhomtheknowledgetowriteitwassecuredbutalsoforthosewhomakeitpossible.MywifeIrishasmadeitpossible for me to live my dream of teaching outdoor skills to others throughmanyoutletsfromsocialmediatotelevisionaswellasthewrittenword.Shehasfaithfully stood by me through the countless hours of training and evolving,through the years of practice and experimental dirt time. She has alwayssupported me and given of herself to help fulfill my dreams in this and anyendeavor,andsotoherIdedicatethisbook.Iwouldalsoliketothankmyfatherfortheexamplesinworkethichetaughtmemyentirelifeandstilltothisday.
Whilewestrivetochaseourdreamsinlifewemustalwaysremembertheroadtosuccessispavedbytheworkyouputintoit.Ihavelearnedthislessonwellfromhisteachings.
As for the contents of this book, the list is exhaustive to say the least: menforgotten in history of both American and European descent, native peoples oftheearlyAmericaswhopassedtheirknowledgetousalongthewayintheearlydays of exploration, and many modern role models who continue to this day topass on the knowledge they have in an effort to establish these lessons forgenerations to come. The writings of authors past such as Daniel Beard, ErnestThompsonSeton,HyattVerrill,WilliamHamiltonGibson,GeorgeWashingtonSears,HoraceKephart,MorsKochanski,andmanyotherscometomindquicklyas shining examples of men from whom I have taken a wealth of knowledge tofurthermylearning.
CONTENTS
Introduction
CHAPTER1:BUILDING YOURKIT
PlantheScopeofYourTripTen Cs of SurvivabilityCore Temperature ControlTools
ComfortConvenienceTipsandTricks
CHAPTER2:NATURALRESOURCES
PineWillowPoplarOakSassafrasBirchITEMize
MedicinalPreparationsTipsandTricks
CHAPTER 3:WOODEN TOOLS AND SIMPLE MACHINES
ThrowingorDiggingStick
Anvil StumpSpear or GigMaulorMalletWedges
SimpleWoodlandMachinesTipsandTricks
CHAPTER4:ADVANCEDFIRECRAFT
PrimitiveFireStarting
TheBowandDrillMethodFlint and Steel MethodSolarFire
TipsandTricks
CHAPTER5:SHELTERING
The Four WsEstablishinga Base CampRovingCamps
PermanentShelterOptionsEarthenStructures
CampAmenitiesTipsandTricks
CHAPTER6:KNOTS,BINDINGS,WEAVING,ANDLOOMS
CordageandRopesKnots
BasketWeavingWeaving
Tablet Weaving
ASimplePegLoom
Inkle LoomWaistLooms
NetsandNetMakingTumplines
TipsandTricks
CHAPTER7:TRAPPING
AnimalBehaviorAnimalSign
Lower-Food-ChainResourcesWater-TypeTraps
TypesofPrimitiveTrapsTrappingBirds
Hunting
TipsandTricks
CHAPTER 8: PRESERVINGFOOD SOURCES
FloursandMealsNuts
Fruits,Vegetables,andHerbsFruitLeather
PlantSourcesofStorableFoodsSaps
Meat
TipsandTricks
CHAPTER9:HIDEPRESERVATION,TANNING,ANDCLOTHINGREPAIR
SmallHidesLargeHides
RawhideMakingLeather
ClothingRepairandReproductionRepairStitches
SimpleClothingPatternsTipsandTricks
CHAPTER10:WOODWORKING
Tools
DimensionalLumberWorkbenches
Besom
AxeandToolHandleReplacementMakingaWoodBow
MakingArrowsTipsandTricks
CHAPTER11:BLACKSMITHING
Blacksmithing ToolsSources for MetalWorkingwithHardMetal
CHAPTER12:CONTAINERSANDCONVEYANCES
WaterContainersBaskets
Clay VesselsBoats
Pack FramesTipsandTricks
Appendix A: Tarp SetupsAppendixB:Dutch-OvenCookingAppendix C: Cloud ChartsAppendixD:PrimitiveNavigation
Appendix E: Mineral Hardness ScaleAppendixF:MeasurementConversions
Introduction
This is the second in what I hope will eventually be a series of books on the artof bushcraft, or wilderness survival. Bushcraft 101 was a primer on the skillsnecessary for a short stay in the wilderness. These skills include building aneffective kit, selecting and managing equipment, developing supplies, andsettingupcamp.Muchofourstudywasonconnectingwithnatureandlearningthebasicsforpreparingourselvesforanyclimateandsituation.InBushcraft101welearnedthatmanythingscanbeaccomplishedwithourownknowledgeandafewtools.Wetalkedaboutthekindsofthingsyouneedforashortstayoutdoors.In Advanced Bushcraft, we will take these skills to the next level and prepareyouforalengthystayinthewilderness.
The most important thing to understand before embarking on a long journeyoutdoorsisresourcemanagement.Youcanonlycarrysomuchonyourback—especiallyifyouplantohikeorwalkforalongdistance.Sinceyoucannotbringatruckloadofsupplieswithyou,youneedtounderstandthelimitationsofyourkit and how to maximize the environment and its resources to overcome theselimitations.Youmustdiscernbetweenwhichsuppliesyoushouldcarrywithyouand which can be harvested or manufactured on the trail. This requires keencompetency in manufacturing versatile tools, starting fires with minimal formsof ignition, developing semipermanent shelter, and establishing an effectivetrappingcampaignforfood.
Long-term sustainability will require a lot of improvisation. Part of self-reliance is learning to deal with the unexpected. Tools will break, weather willturn,andfoodsourcesmaybehardtofind.Youneedtobeconfidentenoughinyourskillsthatyoucanfixthehandleonyouraxeifitbreaks,and,whenyoudo
find that game, preserve the leftovers so the meat will last you a good while. Ifyou understand advanced skills such as building watercraft and makingcontainersforwaterandothersupplies,youwillbeabletonegotiatetheclimateandyourenvironmentforalongtime.Don’tunderestimatethevalueofcomfort.Ifyouaregoingtobeoutforalongtime,agoodnight’ssleepiscritical.
Knowinghowtoassembleasleepsystembyfashioningpillowsandbuildingraisedbedswillmakeatremendousdifferenceinyourabilitytobesuccessful.
Wewillalsotakeacloselookatadvancedwildernessskillssuchasweavingforadditionalclothingandshelterimplementsandnetmakingtohelpsecurefishandotherwateranimalsasadditionalsourcesofprotein.Managingcordageandmanufacturing additional rope out of natural materials will be a criticalcomponentofthesepractices.
Understandingthenaturalworldwillbeabsolutelyessentialtoyourabilitytosmoothitinthewilderness.Itisyourrepositoryforfood,fire-makingsupplies,andhealthresources,anditfurnishesyouaplaceandthematerialstobuildyourshelter.Beingabletorecognizethecomponentsofatree,fromthepropertiesofits wood to the medicinal values of its outer leaves and bark, will allow you totakeadvantageofyourenvironment’slargestresource.Recognizinganimalsandtheir behavioral patterns is what will help you outthink them when you’rehunting. Even the clouds in the sky can provide you with a weather forecast,whichyoucanusetomakeadjustmentstoyourcampandshelter.Remembertopractice! Use short camping trips as an opportunity to hone these skills andexperiment with life when you are carrying only a few things. If certain thingsdon’t work out right away, that’s okay! Head home, rest up, and try it again onyournexttrip.
This handbook is intended for the woodsman who knows basic primitivesurvivalskillsandislookingtoadvancehisknowledgeandabilitiesforalongerstayinthewilderness—afewdaysorevenanentiretrappingcampaignseason.Theseskillswillalsohelpyouintheeventyoubecomelostorstrandedwithoutresources.Mostly,though,thesegiveyouachancetoenvelopyourselfinnature
as our ancestors before us did. As George Washington Sears (Nessmuk) wrote,“Weseektheforestforadventureandafree,open-airhunter’slife,foratimeatleast.”AdvancedBushcraftisthehandbookforyouradventure.Useittosurviveandthriveinthenaturalworld.
—DaveCanterbury
Chapter1
BUILDINGYOURKIT
“ThedoctorateinwoodsyknowledgecanonlybetaughtbyMotherNatureintheclassroom of the outdoors. Many can train you but only experience can teachyou.”
—DAVECANTERBURY
Bushcraft is the practice of using wilderness skills to survive and thrive in thenatural world. In Advanced Bushcraft, you will hone those skills and pushbeyond the mentality of immediate needs. You will learn to think about thetotality of your skills and supplies and how they work together to ensure long-term sustainability. In other words, it’s not just about packing resources. It’saboutthinkingaheadtothekindsofskillsittakestorefurbishyourresourcesorcreatemoreifnecessary.Youwilllearnthatittakesalotofskillsbutonlyafewtoolstobecomeself-reliant.Withjustahandfuloftherightimplementsyoucanmanufacturemostofthethingsyouneed,fromapermanentsheltertoclothing,huntinggear,weapons,andevenmedicine.
PLANTHESCOPEOFYOURTRIP
Short-term trips in the woods are great opportunities to practice skills and takechances with a smaller kit. Traveling with fewer implements requires a lot ofimprovisationwithtoolsandsupplies,andit’sokayifthingsdonotgoperfectly.On a short jaunt, whether it is a day or a week, it does not matter much if yourshelterisuncomfortableorifyourtrappingcampaignisnotoverlysuccessful.
Use short-term trips as opportunities for learning and know that if somethingdoesnotturnoutquiteright,youcanpracticeagainnexttimetomakeitbetter.
Alongtrip,sayafull-seasontrappingcampaign,requiresalotofconfidenceandcertaintyinyourskills.Youdonotwanttoplaceyourselfinasituationofunnecessary risk. For long excursions, a good 4–6 hours of restful sleep eachnight becomes an imperative component of safety. With that in mind, thecomfortlevelofyourshelterandsleepingimplementsmattersagreatdeal.Youmight need to bring supplies to trap for food, but you should also plan for apossibleunsuccessfultrappingcampaignbybringingbackupfoodsources.Youalsoneedtothinkaboutwaystoconservethemostvaluableresourcesormakesurethatyouarenotoverusingthem.Itmaynotbepossibletoreplaceabrokenknifeonthetrail.
Onalong-termtrip,youmightalsoneedtoincludesometypeofconveyance.
Since these are cumbersome, you need to maximize it as a resource. Forexample, a sled for dragging supplies in the snow can be repurposed to dragfirewood or animals from your traps back to camp. Conveyances are not oftendiscussedinbushcraftliterature,buttheyarecriticaltolong-termsustainability.Our ancestors never took to the woods or wilderness without horses, wagons,canoes,sleds,orpacktrains.
TENCSOFSURVIVABILITY
AsdiscussedinBushcraft101,themostbasickititemsarebasedontheFiveCsof Survivability. For longer-term stays in the wilderness you can expand thatchecklisttoTenCs:
Cuttingtools:knives,axes,saws
Combustiondevices:ferroceriumrod,lighter,magnifyinglens
Coverelements:seasonalclothingwithouterwear,tarps,woolblankets,sleepingbag,emergencybivvy,hammock,smalltent
Containers:waterbottles,canteens,nestingcookpotsandpans
Cordage: bankline, paracord, rope, webbing, mule tapeCottonmaterials:bandannas,shemagh,netting,clothshardsCargo tape: duct tape (I prefer the Gorilla Tape brand)Candlingdevices:headlamps,candles,cranklights
Compasses:yourpreferredbrandalongwithasmallbackuplikeaqualitybutton-style
Canvasrepairneedle:wedge-styleneedleforrepairingheavymaterials
Donotforgettoincludeanymedications,includingsomethingtorelieveanallergicreaction,andfirst-aidkititems.
Nowlet’sbreakthekitdownintocategoriessothatyoucanreallyconsideryourneeds.
CORE TEMPERATURECONTROL
Thisisthefirstandmostimportantkitcategory.Clothingisthemostbasicwaytocontroltemperature.Herearesomemorespecificguidelines:
CLOTHING
Pack at least two full sets of socks and undergarments, trousers, and shirts.Carryclothingthatiscomfortableinallseasonsorbepreparedtopackenoughclothingfortwodifferentclimates(foratotaloffoursets).Iwouldrecommend10–12-ounce durable canvas pants like the tree-climbing pants offered byArborwear. Long-sleeved, lightweight, canvas, button-down shirts arecomfortable in all seasons, and cotton T-shirts take advantage of evaporativecoolinginthesummer.Donotforgettoplanforrainandwetweather.
Tentsmithsmakesasolidraincoatfromcottontreatedwithanoil/waxfinish.
In winter, use a heavy wool layer that will act as insulation, such as themerinowoolpantsofferedbyMinus33.Ingeneral,nothingbeatswoolincold-weather climates. It is comfortable, fire retardant, repels moisture, and evenwhenitiswetitstillactsasagoodinsulation.IprefertheBorealShirtbyLesterRiver Bushcraft. It has never let me down, even on the coldest of winter daysandnightshereintheeasternwoodlands.Iffreezingrainandsleetareanissue,combinethewoolwithanoilclothraincoat.
FOOTWEAR
Leather boots are an absolute must for long-term wilderness activities. ThePronghorn,fromDanner,isagreatthree-seasonboot,andtheirCanadianmodelworkswellinthewinter.Whenchoosingyourfootwear,rememberthatbootsareonly as waterproof as they are high. Carrying a second pair of boots will save alotoftroubleonlong-termtripssoyoucanalternateandavoidwearingthemouttooquickly.Ifcarryingasecondpairistoocumbersome,atleastplantobringapairofmoccasinstowearwhenwalkingaroundcampsothatyougiveyour
bootsanoccasionalrest.Moccasins,elkhideorbuffalo,arealsohandywhenstalkinggameindryleaves.
HAT
Neverunderestimatetheimportanceofhatswhenplanningyourkit.Agoodhat will protect you from the sun and conserve body heat—most of which isreleasedthroughtheheadandtheneck.Afeltedwide-brimhatworkswellinspring,summer,andfall.Awoolbeanieortobogganwillhelpcombatthecoldinwinter. In the most severe weather I have found great comfort in the old leatherbombercapswithearflapsandfurlinings.
SCARVES
Kerchiefsandscarveshavebeenstaplesofthewoodsman’skitforhundredsof years. Their uses go well beyond the obvious. The cotton netting used as asniper veil works very well in summer and makes a great improvised net forfishing.Kerchiefsmadefromcotton,liketheshemagh,areeffectiveacrossthreeseasons.Inwinter,Iprefera4'×4'scarf,whichnotonlykeepsmewarmbutcanalsobeusedasacapetorepelsnow.
GLOVESANDMITTENS
Asturdypairofleathercalfskingloveswillprotectthehandsfrombriars,brambles,andblisterswhendoingnormalcampchores.Inwinter,arcticmittenswithwoolglovelinersareindispensable.Ihavefoundthattostaycomfortablefor a full day on the trail or trap line, keeping my extremities warm is just asimportantasconservingheatonmycore.
TOOLS
Whenpackingtools,whattrulydistinguishesasophisticatedkitiseliminatingredundancies.Let’stakeafewminutestodiscussdifferentoptionsforcriticaltoolssothatyoucanintelligentlydecidewhattopackinalong-termkit.
FARMED
Rememberthisacronymwhenpurchasingtoolsforyourkit.Itisespeciallyhelpfulwhenyouaretryingtochoosebetweenmultiplebrandsandstyles:
Functionality—Isthistooldesignedforonlyonespecificpurpose?Orcoulditbeusedtocompleteseveraldifferenttasks?
Affordability—Does this tool fit into my budget, especially whenconsidering the total sum of the tools I need to purchase for my kit?Repeatability—CanIperformtasksthesamewaywiththistoolandgetthesameresulteachtimeoristheregoingtobealonglearningcurvetomasterit?
Maintainability—Isthistooleasytomaintainovertimewithaminimumofperipheralgear?
Ergonomics—Doesthistoolfeelgoodtomeformybodystatureandbuild?Willittiremeeasilyorcauseunduediscomfortduringuse?
Durability—Isthetoolofgoodqualitythatwilllastforyearsifwellmaintained?
CHECKLISTOFFIVEMOSTIMPORTANTTOOLS
Thesetoolsshouldbethebasisofyourkit.Whendecidingwhichversionsofthesetoolstoincludeinyourkit,thinkabouttheenvironmentalfactors,thetypeofshelteryouplantobuild,andthelengthofyourstay:
KnifeAxe
SawCarvingtoolAwl
KNIFE
Whenyou’reselectingaknifeforyourkit,thenumberofchoicescanbecompletely overwhelming. It is a good practice to carry a few knives fordifferenttasks.
Certainbladeprofilesaremoreconducivetocertaintasks.Aknifewithabutchering profile will always be the best overall knife when processing gamemeat.Aslenderbladewidthisbetterforfinecarvingtasks,boning,andfilleting.If you are building a longer-term kit that includes resources for more advancedtasksinthewilderness,gameisgoingtobeakeyelementtoyoursuccess.
Processing this game for food, tools, and hides is more critical than carvingnotchessoyouwillneedabladethatisspecifictothistask.Aknifeforfoodprocessing should be about 4"–5" long and fairly thin at about 1⁄8" or less. AScandinavian (V) grind will be most useful, but a flat grind is a close second.Bothareeasilymaintainedinthefieldbutarestrongenoughtoactasaprimaryblade,shouldyouneedareplacement.
CARVINGTOOLS
Intheeasternwoodlands,thejackknife,orfoldingknife,hasbeenconsideredthe best for whittling or fine carving. Morakniv carries a fine line of carvingtools. I also like the crooked knife, or mocotaugan, which was a standard carrytool for many native peoples. This knife, similar to the Bent Knife byDeepwoodsVentures,canbeusedfortasksasversatileascarvingcanoepaddlestomanufacturingreplacementhandles.
MACHETESANDLONGERBLADES
In many areas of the country a machete may be the best choice of blade inconjunction with a smaller knife. The advantage to the machete is that you canuseittoquicklyclearatrailorlimbsfromatree.Italsoworksasascrapingandcraftingtool.Inmyopinion,themacheteistrulythe“woodsman’spal.”Selectasize that works best for you, but I find that from the tip of the blade to the baseofthehandleshouldberoughlyequaltothedistancefromtheelbowtofingertip.
AXE
Themainaxeyoucarryshouldbeatleast18"–20"inhandlelength.Alargeraxeof26"–28"inhandlelengthwillbemuchmoreeffectiveforbigtaskssuchas cutting down large trees. Aside from handle configurations, there are alsomanyheaddesignsandprofilesavailable.Anaxewithaheadweightofupto3poundsisgoodforfelling.Whenselectinganaxe,mostoftherightdimensions
comedowntopersonalpreference,butwhateveryouchoose,Ihavefoundthatagoodaxeisworthitsweightingoldonalongtrip.
TOMAHAWKS
The tomahawk, a personal tool that hangs on the belt, has been used forhundredsofyears.Itisabackuptoaknife.Oneofthehandiestthingsaboutthetomahawkisthatthehandlecanberemovedsoyoucanusetheheadaloneasascrapingorskinningtool.Tomahawksaretoosmalltoprocesslargeamountsoffirewood or fell large trees, but their handles can be replaced fairly easily ifbroken,whichmakesthemagoodchoiceforlongexcursions.Therearealotoftomahawks on the market today, but the ones with heavier heads are mostadvantageousforwood-processingtasks.
HATCHETS
The decision to carry a tomahawk or a hatchet depends on your individualneedsandtheenvironment.Asmallercrafting-typehatchetcanbecarriedalongwiththelargeraxe.Hatchetscanbecarriedrightonthebeltandareveryeasytowieldwithonehand.Theyarehandyforfinecarvingandsmallchoppingwhenprocessing fire materials. Look for varieties that are designed to put thecenterlinebladeintheproperlocationwhenyouarechokinguponthehandlesothat it works as a carving or skinning tool as well. Hudson Bay–style heads aregreatinthisapplication.
SAWS
Foldingsawsmakeanexcellentadditiontoyourkitaslongasthebladeisnottooaggressive.ByaggressiveImeanabladewithlargerteethandawiderkerf,or distance between teeth; these do not make fine cuts. It is better to selectsomethingwithsmallerteethandanarrowkerf.Iseemanyfoldingsawsonthemarket today with aggressive pruning-type, green-wood blades. The problemwiththatconfigurationisthatitlimitstheusesofthesaw.Afoldingsawismostefficientwhenitdoublesasanotch-cuttingsaw,andforthatreason,a
crosscuttingbladewillbemucheasiertocontrolandyourcutswillbecleaner.Therearealotofvarietiesinthemarket,butIfindthebestbladeonafoldingsawwiththebestlongevityisBahco’sLaplandermodel.
Fixed-blade saws: These saws include not only crosscutting or dovetailsawsbutalsopruningblades.Thetypesofsawsyouincludeinyourkitwillbedictatedbywhatyouplantodowiththem.Ifyouarecarryingabucksaworbowsawthathasagreen-woodblade,thenasimplecrosscutbladewitha bit finer teeth will be much more desirable than a pruning-type, green-woodblade.
Bow Saws and bucksaws (frame saws): These are safe choices, and theireasyusehelpstosavepreciouscalories.Includeoneoftheseinanywinterkit,nomatterthelengthofyourstay.Forlonger-termkits,justbesurethatthe blade is at least 20" long and has both a green-wood and dry-woodblade. The advantage to a bow (metal-frame) saw is durability. Irecommendtheseforlong-termoutings.Eventhoughitismadefrommetal,theframeisactuallyahollowtubesothedifferenceinweightisnegligible.
AWL
In the trade ledger from the American frontier days, the awl was one of themost traded metal items, second only to the knife. Awls are designed to punchholes in materials such as leather, bark, and wood. There are many differenttypes of awls, but the crooked awl is the most versatile. These tools are two-sidedwiththreeorfoursidestoeachpoint.Thetaperoftheawlisusuallyalittledifferentonopposingendssothatyouhavesomeversatilitywhendrillingholes.You can easily fashion a handle for one end of this tool if needed or add a holeforlock-stitchsewingtasks.
COMFORT
In this category you should think about how to get a good night’s rest in bothlong-term and short-term scenarios. Even if you are planning to set up apermanentshelter,youneedtobepreparedtosetupatemporaryshelterincaseyouneedtoleavebasecampforadayortwo.AgoodEgyptiancotton,oilclothtarpof8'×8'minimum,liketheoneavailablefromTentsmiths,combinedwithamoisturebarriersuchasatickmattressandastoutwoolenblanketwilldointhecoldest of climates. Just make sure you have a proper bed and fire. ThePathfinder100percentwoolblanket,fromSelfRelianceOutfitters,willworkasa good three-season blanket, as will Witney (check eBay), Hudson’s Bay(availablethroughWoolrichorL.L.Bean),orTonyBakerblankets.Youcanalsolookinsurplusstoresforanyblanketsthatareguaranteed100percentwool.Anywoolen blanket should be entirely made of wool and should be queen-sized orsix-pointdimension,approximately96"×96".
HAMMOCKS
Hammocks afford many advantages, even for use in a long-term shelter, andgive a very comfortable night’s sleep. They have been commonly used bywoodsmen since the 1800s. Older versions were fashioned from balloon silk,rope netting, or canvas. Balloon silk is not that different in consistency andweighttotheparachute-typematerialusedtomakehammockstoday.Hammockscanbeagreatthree-seasonoptionwhencombinedwithablanket.Theycanevenbe used in cold weather if you use some kind of quality underquilt that willcombatconvectionissuesassociatedwithhangingaboveground.Alotofhammock manufacturers now make a bug net that is either built into thehammock or available as an add-on. These nets create a screened enclosure,offeringaddedprotectionfrombugs.
TENTS
Small backpacking-style tents provide comfort and security from bugs andother wigglers. The downside is that their construction restricts your view andeliminatestheabilitytousefireasaheatsource.Thereisalwaysatradeoffwithanypieceofgear!Therearealotofdifferenttypesoftentsonthemarket,butIwould suggest selecting one that is made of the heaviest material you feelcomfortablecarrying.Youwillappreciatethedurability.Oneotherpossibledownsidetoconsideristhatcondensationtendstoforminsidethetentwallsatnight, which can make them colder than open shelter. Look for varieties withmeshtopsandarainflap,whichhelpsalleviatethecondensationissues.
BIVVIES
Abivvyisusuallyasmalltube-stylebagthatismadeforasinglepersonandcanbesetupveryquickly.Thesamerulesapplytobivviesastotents:Lookfordurablematerialwithmeshandaclosablerainflaptohelppreventcondensation.Somemanufacturersofferbivviesthathaveasleepingbagincluded,likeaself-containedsleepingunit.
TENTCOTS
Therearealsotentcotsmadeespeciallyforhunting.Theseareself-containedtents and sleeping cots built into one unit. They can be quite comfortable andprovidealltheadvantagesofaraisedbedandclosedtent.
ULTRALIGHTCOTS
Ultralightcotsprovideacomfortableraisedbedinjustacoupleofminutes.
Thesecotsfoldupverysmallandareextremelylight,whichmakesthemagreatoptionforagoodnight’ssleeponlongertreks.
CONVENIENCE
Itemsofconveniencearethelowestprioritywhenbuildinganemergencyorsurvivalkit,butinalong-termscenariotheseitemsareveryimportant.Thesearetheitemsthatmakecamplife“smoother”andalsoaddtothelongevityofyour supplies. They include things that repair and refurbish, candles,navigationalaids,extracontainers,evensnowshoes.
PRIORITIZINGITEMSOFCONVENIENCE
Repair kits with additional toolsPremadetindersandfireextenders
VariedcookwaresuchasfoldingreflectorovensandskilletsAdditional tarpage for making shelter over work areasAdditionalcordageformajorprojectslikenets
TIPSANDTRICKS
Anyhandledtoolshouldhaveahandleofwoodforeaseofreplacementinthefield.
Inapinch,thebladeofabowsawcanalwaysbeusedwithaframesawthatyoufashionyourselffromnaturalmaterialssuchaswood.
Save the most precious resources as a last option. For example, neverstartafirewithalighterifyoucanuseaferrorod,andneveruseaferrorodifyoucanusethesun(whichisarenewableresource).
“Opossummentality”isalwayskey:Thinklikeascavenger.Neverpassover a needed resource thinking that you will run into it again. This isespeciallytruewithmaterialsrelatedtofire,food,ormedicine.
Anypieceofyourkitshouldbeversatileenoughthatithasatleastthreeviableuses.
Chapter2
NATURALRESOURCES
“Preconceivednotions,especiallywhenoneisfairlybroughtupintheirinfluence,aremostdifficulttoshakeoff.”
—STEWARTEDWARDWHITE,CAMPANDTRAIL
Naturalresourcesareacriticalcomponentofwoodcraftandbushcraft.Treesareespeciallybeneficialbecausetheyareaccessiblethroughoutallfourseasons.It’strue that some resources within a tree may be better harvested during warmerseasons, but the lumber, roots, and inner bark are always available. There aremanytreesintheeasternwoodlands,andtalkingaboutallthespecificspeciesisbeyondthescopeofthisbook.However,youwilllearnaboutsomeofthemostprevalentfamiliesoftrees,likepine,willow,poplar,oak,andbirch,andhowtothoroughlyusetheresourcestheyoffer.
Viewatextversionofthistable
PINE
Thepinetreeisoneofthemostabundanttreesintheeasternwoodlands.Italsoprovides useful resources throughout all four seasons. Since the pine tree is aconifer, it does not lose its needles in the winter when many other tree speciesdroptheirleaves.Let’stakeacloserlookatthistreefromtheoutsideintobetterunderstanditsresources.
Pinewoodisfantasticbecause,duetoitsresinousnature,itwillburnquicklyand can be used to make a fire lay even in wet weather. The dark black smokethatyouseefromafiremadewithpineisaproductoftheresinsfromwithinthewood burning off. Pine is a softwood that can make a very effective bow-drillhearth and spindle set—although be careful to avoid the resins or the set willsimply polish and not burn. Pine makes a decent carving wood but is not asdurableforutensilsasotherwoods.
Pineneedles
SAP/RESIN
Pine resin is usually found on the outermost part of the tree where an injuryhas occurred. The dripping or secretion allows you to access and collectsomethingfrominsidethetreewithouthurtingit.Thisresin,orsap,islikeliquid
gold and should be collected at any opportunity that presents itself. I carry aseparate4-ouncetinsothatIcancollectsapanytimeIcomeacrossitandstoreitin my kit. As a medicinal resource, pine sap can act like new skin on a shallowcutandgenerallyworksasanantisepticwhencaringforwounds.Theresinitselfishighlyflammableandisthereforeagreatflameextenderwithinthefirelay.Avery good adhesive, called pine pitch, can be made by heating the sap andaddingequalpartscharcoalandabinderlikecattailflufforherbivoredung.Usealowheatwhenmeltingthesapbecauseitbecomesverybrittlewhenburned.
Theresultinggluecanthenbestoredinatinorwrappedonapitchstickbywindingitlikecottoncandyonastickanddryingitonelayeratatime.Thisstickcanlaterbeheatedoverafiretosoftentheglueforapplication.
NEEDLES
Needles on eastern pines are extremely nutritious and have more vitamin Cper weight than a fresh-squeezed orange. Also high in vitamin A, these pineneedlesmakeanexcellentteaforboostingtheimmunesystem.Pineneedleteaalsoworksasanexpectorantandadecongestant.Theteacanevenbeusedasanantiseptic wash or fomentation. Not all pines taste the same, so you should trydifferenttypestofindwhatyoulikebest.Youcanfashionbeautifulcoilbasketsfrompineneedles,althoughthistaskistedious.Deadpineneedlesarefantasticadditionstoanyfirelayastheresinousneedlesarehighlyflammable.Theyalsomakegoodcoarsematerialsforabird’snestwhenmakingprimitivefire.
ROOTS
Certain tree species, such as the spruce, have very long roots that grow justunderthesurfaceoftheground.Theserootscanbeharvestedinlonglengthsandusedforcordorbasketweaving.Oncetherootisharvested,theouterbarkmustberemovedtomaketherootmorepliable.Youcanremovethebarkbypinchingtherootbetweentwosticksandpullingtherootthrough,removingthebarkas
yougo.Keeptherootswetsothattheyareeasiertohandle.Largerrootscanbefurthersplittomaketheresourcelastevenlonger.
FATWOOD
The area of the tree commonly known as the fatwood will collect the resinsbestbecauseit’swherethesapsettles.Oftentimesthestumpandrootballcanbeanexcellentsourceoffatwood.Notalltreespecieshavealotofsap,soyouwillneed to experiment with what you have. It is safe to say that all pines willcontain some fatwood. Many times, a dead standing or fallen tree will have aroot ball that is completely saturated with resin. That is the gold mine! If youfind yourself in need of an emergency fire-starting device, remember thatfatwood is highly flammable. When you combine the accelerant value of resinwiththewoodasaslow-burningfuelsourceyouhaveanaturalpairing.Chooseanareaofalivingordeadtreewhereabranchhasgrownandcutthebranchasclose to the trunk as possible. Here you will find at least a few inches offatwood.Toprocessthiswoodforstartingafire,locatethedark,orange-coloredfatwoodareaandscrapethisintofineshavingswiththebackofyourknife.Thismaterialwillignitewithanopenflameoraferroceriumrod.
INNERBARK
Theinnerbarkcanbeusedasafoodsource.Italsoholdsmanyantisepticpropertiesandcanevenbeusedasanimpromptubandage.Whendried,theinnerbarkcanalsobeusedtomakeslatsforwovenbaskets.
WILLOW
Willowisawaterindicatortree,sinceitonlygrowswellinwetareasalongriverand stream banks, drainage areas, and lakesides. Willow wood is soft, good forcarving, and one of the best materials for a hearth and spindle when making abow-drillfireset.
Willowleaf
LEAVESANDBRANCHES
Willowleavesandtheinnerbarkcontainsalicin,whichisoneofthechemicalcompounds used in aspirin. A decoction of the inner bark will make a fairly goodheadacheremedy,andchewingtheleaveswillalleviateatoothache.
The branches of the willow grow long, and new growth is fairly straight,whichiswhytheymakepassablearrowshafts.Willowbranchesarepliableandcanthereforebeusedtomakequickbasketcontainersaswell.
INNERBARK
Willow’sinnerbarkcanbeusedtomakebasketsandpackboards.Thebarkisbest harvested in the spring and early summer when the bark is loose and caneasilybepriedfromthetreewithawedge.Theouterbarkcanthenbeseparatedbypeelingtheinnerbarkfromit.Aswithmostofthesetypesofcomponents,theinnerbarkismostworkablewhenkeptwet.
POPLAR
Therearemanypoplarsintheeasternwoodlands.Thetulippoplar(sometimesknownastheyellowpoplar)isoneofmyfavorites,butitisactuallyamagnoliaand not a true poplar. Daniel Boone’s canoe was carved from this wood. Thepoplarisasofttreeandthereforemakesanexcellentprimitivefiresetsuchasabow drill. The poplar makes a fine spindle as well as a hearth board for thispurpose.Alsofineforcarving,itmakeseasysmallcampitemslikespoonsandspatulas.
TulipPoplarleaf
LEAVES
The leaves and the barks of this tree are very astringent and can be usedmedicinallyfordrawinginfectionorfordrivingtoxins,liketheoilsfrompoisonivy,tothesurface.Ahotfomentationcombinedwithawashisoneofthebestwaystoridyourskinoftheivyoilsthatcauserash.Whentakenasaninfusion,theleafteaisbindingandcanrelievediarrhea.
OUTERBARK
Duringthespring,easilyremovetheouterbarkbypryingitfromthesapwoodwithawedgeoryouraxeblade.Youcanusethisbarktomakebarkcontainers
frombasketstoarrowquivers.Todothis,maketwocircularcutsthroughthebarkaroundthetree;thedistancebetweenthecutsshouldbethedesiredlengthof the piece. Then, to open the bark, make a vertical cut by inserting a wedgebetweenthebarkandsap.Youcanthenslowlypeelofftheouterbark.
Rememberthatpeelingoffthebarkwillkillthetree,somakesureitisabsolutelynecessarybeforeyoudoit.
INNERBARK
Intheeasternwoodlands,theinnerbarkofthepoplarisoneofthemostprizedresourcesnexttopinesap.Theinnerbarkprovidesbothbird’snestmaterialandtinder bundles for fire. When harvested green, it also makes a strong reversewrap for two-ply cordages. Many times the inner bark fibers can easily be seenthrough rotting bark hanging off the branches. If branches are dead but notshedding, the back of your knife will easily process this to make the inner barkaccessible.
OAK
The oak, with its heavy grain and hard wood, has traditionally been used forconstruction.Oakisexcellentforcraftingwoodentoolsandevenreplacementhandlesfortools.Therearetwomajorgroupsofoaks:redoakandwhiteoak.
Redoakisgreatforanybuildingmaterialslikeslatboardsanddimensionallumber. Red oak is a fibrous wood that handles bending stress easily, so itcanalsobeusedformakingbows.Redoakcanbeusedtoheat-formmanysuppliessuchaspackframesandsnowshoeframes.
White oak represents the medicinal side of the oak family. In medievaltimes, the white oak leaf was the symbol for materia medica, that is, thecollectedknowledgeaboutmedicinesandtheconditionstheywereusedtotreat. The inner bark of white oak can help relieve sinus congestion andheadaches.Duetothehighleveloftannins,theleavesandthebarksofthistreeareveryastringentandcanbeusedfordrawinginfectionorfordrivingthings to the surface, like the oils from poison ivy, and for relievingdiarrhea.Whiteoakisantisepticinnature,sodecoctionsofthisbarkmakeexcellentmouthwashesandgarglesforsorethroatorgumproblems.
Oakwoodisalong-burninghardwood,whichmakesitagreatchoiceforall-nightfiresandforcreatingcoalbedsincookfires.
Oakleaf
SASSAFRAS
Iincludesassafrasherebecauseofthecarminativevalueoftheroottea.Finelygrounddrysassafrasleaveswillalsoaddacinnamon-typeflavortofoodssuchas bannock, a quick-fry bread. Sassafras was a mainstay tonic from colonialtimesuntilthe1960swhentheFDAconductedteststhatshowedmassamountsofsafrolecausedlivercancerinrats.Rootdecoctioncanbeusedtoeaseupsetstomachandregulatethedigestivesystem.
Sassafrasleaf
BIRCH
There are several species of birch throughout the eastern woodlands, but blackand river birch are the most prevalent in the middle ground areas of the OhioRivervalley.Allbirchescontainoilthatcanbeextractedfromthebark,anditisso flammable that it can often still burn even when damp. Birch is an excellentcarvingwoodandisthepreferredmaterialforScandinavian-madeknifehandles.
Birchleaf
BIRCHBARK
Birchbarkprovidesprobablythemostversatileandevenlife-savingresourcesof all the trees in the eastern woods, save maybe the pine. With its rich andvolatile oils, birch bark burns with a dark black smoke that in the summer canhelp drive off insects. It is virtually unmatched in its ability to burn in dampconditions, and when using open flame it requires almost no processing toquicklycreateahot,warmingfirewhiledryingmarginaltinderasitgoes.Birchbark is also prized as a material for crafting containers of all sorts and forweaving to make baskets and sheaths. Native peoples used birch bark to makethe outer skin of canoes. It is best to harvest the bark from live trees betweenMay and June, but this tree is so resilient and resistant to rot that bark can evenbe harvested from dead trees. It is possible to harvest the outer bark withoutkillingalivetreeaslongasyouareabletodosowithoutdisturbingtheinner
bark.Maketestcutstodeterminethethicknessandpliabilityofthebarkbeforemakinglargeharvests.
CHAGA(TINDERFUNGUS)
Birchesthatgrowathigheraltitudesorincolderclimatesaresusceptibletoaparasitic fungus commonly called tinder fungus (Inonotus obliquus), or chaga.Chaga grows in areas of the United States from New England and Michigandown to North Carolina. Chaga has long been sought for both its medicinal andfire tinder properties. It appears as a large blackened ball or mass on the side ofthe trunk of both live and fallen birch. This fungus has extensive medicinalvalue;manywoodsmenwillsimplyboilachunkofitintheirkettleasadailyteato drink at camp. When it’s used as a fire starter, the yellow soft areas beneaththeblackoutercrustwilltakethesparksfrombothsteelandrodandwillholdanembertobeusedforignition.Youcansliceitthinlyorcreateadustthatcanthenbestoredinyourkitforlateruse.
MEDICINALVALUEOFTREERESOURCES
TREE
MEDICINALVALUE
Pine
Decongestant,antiseptic,immunesystembooster
Willow
Painreliever
Poplar
Astringent,diarrhearelief
Oak
Decongestant,astringent,diarrhearelief
Sassafras
Regulatedigestivesystem
Birch
Antiseptic,insectrepellant
BIRCH OIL
Birchoilisextractedbyusingtwocontainersofmetalorclay.Thefirst,calledthecatchmentcontainer,isburiedbelowgroundtotherimandsurroundedbydirt. The second container is filled with birch bark and sealed with a drain holeor holes in the bottom from which oil drains into the catchment container. Thiscontainerisplacedjustoverthecatchmentcontainer.Afireisthenbuiltaroundtheabovegroundcontainertoheatthematerialandreleasetheoilsuntilthey
slowlydrainintothecontainerbelow.Theprocessusuallytakesseveralminutesto fill a small container. Then the top container is carefully removed to exposethe pool of oil below. This oil is highly medicinal and can be used as both anantisepticandaninsectrepellant.Itisalsoflammable,sobecautiouswhenusingit.
ITEMIZE
It’struethatplantsandtreesprovidemanyresources,butitisabsolutelycriticalthattheyareidentifiedcorrectlybeforeusingthem.Afriendofmine,GreenDean,teachesasimplemethodforthiscalledITEM:
I—Properly Identify the plant with at least two resources.T—ConsidertheTimeofyear:Istheplantgrowingorbloomingintheproperseasonforitsspecies?
E—ObservetheEnvironment:Istheplantortreegrowinginalocationtruetoitsnature?Forexample,aplantthatprefersdry,rockysoilwilllikelynotbefoundinamarsh.
M—ResearchtheMethodofharvestandpreparation.Manyplantsmustbeharvested at a certain time in their life cycle, or a certain part must beharvested for use. Find out what method is used to prepare this plant forfood or medicine. Does it need to be leached? Does it need to be doubleboiledtocreateadecoction?
MEDICINALPREPARATIONS
Herearesomebasicmethodsusedtopreparenaturalresourcesformedicinaluse:
Infusion—Thisprocessisjustlikemakingtea.Theportionsoftheplanttobeusedareplacedinwaterthathasalreadybeenboiledandremovedfromthefire.Alidisplacedonthecontainerandthemixtureislefttosteepfor15–30minutes.Itisthenconsumedasneeded.
Decoction—Similartothewayyoumakeaninfusion,youaregoingtoboilwater. With a decoction, however, you will add the bark or roots to theboiling water while it is still on the fire and simmer until half the liquidremains.Thenaddwatertotheoriginalamountagainandrepeat.Onceyouhaveessentiallytwice-boiledtheliquid,itcanbestrainedandconsumedorusedasneeded.Note:Thismethodisalwaysusedforextractionfrombarkandroots.
Fomentation—Afomentationisaninfusionordecoctioninwhichacottonmaterial has been steeped for about 5 minutes and is then wrapped orplacedontheskin.
Wash—You use a wash of either an infusion or decoction to wash orirrigateanarea.Youcanalsopossiblysoaksomethinginit,suchasyourfeet.
Poultice—Apoulticeisusuallythemaceratedplantwrappedagainsttheskinwithabandage.Thismethodisusedmainlyfordrawingortoreduceswelling.
TIPSANDTRICKS
Ifyouarehavingproblemsidentifyingatreeinthewintermonthswhenyou have only the bark to examine, look on the ground around the tree.Theleavesaroundit,evenifdry,willbeagoodindicatorofwhattypeoftreeitis.
Whenusingtreebarkasaresource,rememberthatthebirchistheonlytreethatyoucanringorgirdlewithoutkillingtheentiretree.
Afterinjuringatree,applyingafreshcoatofthickmudwillhelptoprotectitfromfurtherdamageasitheals.
Alwayscollect“punky”wood,whichiswoodthatisnearlyrottenandvery spongy in appearance and feel. Punky wood makes the charredmaterialforthenextfire.
Keepaneyeoutforwatervines.Inanemergency,ifwaterisunavailable,wild grape or water vines will hold water for several months from earlyspring through summer. Cut the vine close to the ground first and thenabout2'higher.Alargevinewillholduptoacupofwater.
Chapter3
WOODENTOOLSANDSIMPLEMACHINES
“Nature’sPriority:Takecareofthebrainfirst.Thenitwilltakecareofyou.”
—GENEFEAR,
SURVIVING THE UNEXPECTED WILDERNESS EMERGENCY
InadditiontothefivecriticalmetaltoolsdiscussedinChapter1,therearefivewooden tools you can easily craft yourself to aid in a long-term outing. Theselection is dependent on the type of trip you have planned and what food andmeat procurement supplies you are carrying. This list takes into considerationthefactthatyouarecraftingmostofyourtoolsasyougoinordertokeepdownthe weight of your kit. This is especially true when you are traveling withoutconveyances.
THROWINGORDIGGINGSTICK
The first thing I usually make while preparing my camp is a throwing stick,which can also be used for digging. Although this type of tool is one of theeasiesttomake,itaddsalotofversatilitytoyourkit.Thethrowingstickshouldbe made of green hardwood (oak, maple, magnolia) if possible and is about thelengthfromyourarmpittoyourcuppedhand,orwhatIcall“axe-handlelength.”Icuta45°wedgeononeendandadullpointontheother.Thissimpletoolcanbe tucked into the back of your belt or bedroll until needed. You now have areadytooltothrowatgameonthegroundsuchasrabbitsandsquirrels,andyoucanalsouseittodigfire-pitholesoruprootplantsandtubers.Itcanbeusedasaready baton if needed for processing firewood or even for retrieving hangingdeadwood by tying a string to it, throwing it over a branch, and pulling. Themost beautiful thing about this multifunctional tool is it only takes about 2minutestomanufactureandisthereforeeasytoreplace.
Throwingstick
ANVILSTUMP
Find a large stump if you can, or just cut off a piece of log that is large enoughforaseat.Youwillbesurprisedatthemanyusesitwillaffordoverashorttime.Thisstumpwillkeepyouoffthegroundandwillalsofunctionasaworkbenchandadrysurfaceonwhichtoprocessfiretinderandkindling.TheanvilstumpcanalsobeusedmuchlikeasawhorsewhenyouaddVnotchesonthesideintowhichyoucanplacepiecesofwoodthatneedtobecut.JustlayyourstumponitssideandlockthepieceofwoodyouwanttocutintotheVnotch.Thewiderthe notch, the bigger the piece of wood you can lay into it. This will help youavoid driving your axe or knife into the dirt by accident. The anvil stumpprovides a raised surface for a candle at night as well. The anvil stump can befurtherprocessedtomakeagrindingbowlonthesurfaceand,ontheotherside,aseriesofcutoutsthatcanbeusedtoholdsharpeningstonesandflatsofwoodthatcanbeusedforcuttingboards.
Anvilstump(clave)
SPEARORGIG
Thespear,simpleasitmaysound,isextremelyusefulforavarietytaskswhenyouareroaming.Itshouldbeconstructedofahardwoodsaplinglikemapleandshouldbeatleast12"tallerthaneyelevelwhenfinished.Makeastoutforkthathas about 4" tines on one end. The other end can be fashioned in one of twoways depending on the environment. If you are close to a good water source,such as a flowing steam or pond, you will want a gigging device on the otherend.Makethisgigbysplittingtheendofthesaplinginacrossfashiontocreatefourequaltines,eachofwhichareabout6"–8"long.Thensharpenthestickasifitwerestillonesolidpiece.Afterthis,twosmallgreenstickswillbeplacedintothecrosscutstoforceopenthetines.Youcanthenlashthesticktokeepitfromsplittingfurtherbeforesharpeningtheindividualtines.
Oncethisiscompletedyouhaveatoolthatcanbeusedforhuntingthingslikefrogs, fish, snakes, and small mammals in dens. This tool will also give youreach to retrieve nuts or nests from high points in trees. Use your spear forstabilitybyusingitasathirdlegwhencrossingstreams.Youcanalsouseitasasupportforhangingapotoverthefireifneeded.Youwillfindinfiniteusesforthissimpletoolasyoutravelandhunt.
Spear
MAULORMALLET
A maulcanbeeasilyfashionedfromacutgreenhardwoodbranch.Maulsvaryin size, but I would start with a branch that is approximately 16" long and 4" indiameter.Carvetheheadfromthefirst6"ofthebranchandreducetheotherendofthecutwoodsothatitcomfortablyfitsinthehand,makingitsweightforwardlikealarge,roundhammer.Thistoolcanbeusedformanytasks,especiallyforstriking the back of a metal tool such as your knife or your axe. This tool willtransform your axe into a wedge, a chisel, or a sheer cutting device with morecontrolthanifyouarejustswingingitfreely.Themaulcanalsobeusedtobatonwood with your knife if the need arises. Finally, you can easily open or smashacorns,nuts,andclamshellswiththistool.Becausethemaulhasalargersurfacearea than the hammer pole on your axe, it’s also a great device for drivingwoodenstakesandwedges.
Maul
WEDGES
As soon as you need to split wood, you will need to make wedges. If you areforced to use a knife for processing wood, a wedge can be vitally important tosafelyremoveaknifethatgetsstuckduringasplit.Wedgesshouldbemadefromgreen hardwood material and, as with most of these tools, should be made invaryingdiametersandangles.Wedgescanalsobeusedforsplittinglongerlogsto make things like bow staves or dimensional lumber. They’re also useful forseparating bark from sapwood to make containers or bark shingles for roofingmaterials. When not in use, wedges can double as tent stakes. For that reasonalone,Irecommendfashioningsixseparatewedgesabout1"–2"indiameterandatleast12"long.Inthisway,thesetoolsbecomeoneofthefivesimplemachinesyouusemostofteninthewoods.
Wedge
SIMPLEWOODLANDMACHINES
Asidefromwedges,therearefourothersimplemachinesthatyoucanfashionfrom wood material found in the landscape to help with tasks in and aroundcamp.
WINDLASS
The windlass is used to move heavy weights or for tensioning. Typically, awindlassconsistsofahorizontalcylinderthatisrotatedbytheturnofacrankorbelt.Awinchisaffixedtooneorbothendsandacableorropeiswoundaroundthewinch,pullingaweightattachedtotheoppositeend.Awindlasscanbemadeevenmoresimplywithaloopofcordorropeanchoredtoafixedobjectandthenloopedaroundanotherobjecttobemoved.Aleverofproportionatesizeisthenplaced within the loop and turned, end over end, to tighten the line until iteventuallymovestheobject.
Windlassoperation#1
You can also use larger posts as levers, either at ground level or standing,windingropetomoveanobject.Awindlasscanalsobeassimpleasatensioningdeviceforabucksaw,madefromnaturalmaterials.Aquickvisecanbemadefrom a green stump by employing a windlass to tension the work piece. Awindlass operates very similar to a tourniquet in this case. It employs a fewwrapsofropetensionedbyastickthatisthenheldinplacebytyingitofftothelowerareaofthestump.Itactstoconstricttheworkpieceandasaholdfast.
Killing-typetrapssometimesalsoincludeawindlassdevice.
Windlassoperation#2
INCLINEDPLANE
An inclined plane is a simple machine for moving heavy objects aboveground. The inclined plane takes advantage of angles in order to lever or pullweightforwardonashallowangle.Thismakesiteasiertoliftthanpullingdeadweightdirectlyfromtheground.Youcan,forexample,movealargerlogontoabuckinghorseorpullaloguphill.Tooperatetheinclinedplaneyoutake
advantageofthehillandthelogasacylindricalrollingobject.Fromthere,youuseawindlasstocontrolthetaskofraisingtheloguphill.
Topullaloguphillyouwilltakeadvantageoftheinclineplaneofthehillside.
YouwillneedalengthofropelongenoughtoformaWwiththecenterwrappedaroundatreeatthetopofthehillandthetwooutsideVswrappingthelog.Thetailsontheoutsideareusedatthetoptorollthelogupthehill,withtwopeoplepullingatthesametime.
Inclinedplane
LEVERANDFULCRUM
Alevermadeofstrongmateriallikegreenhardwoodcanbeusednotonlytorolllargelogsandstonesacrossthegroundbutalsotoassistinrollinglogsupaninclined plane. When using a fulcrum in conjunction with a lever, you can alsoliftlogsandotherheavyobjects.
BOWANDDRILL
The bow and drill is one of the oldest simple machines. It is used as aprimitivefirestarterandcanalsobeusedinconjunctionwithbitsofmetalorstonetomakeholesinotherobjects.You’llneedtocreateachuckwhenusing
thisdeviceforanythingotherthanfiremaking.(Sometimeschucksareusedformakingfiretoo.)Formoreonthismachineseethefollowingchapter.
Bowanddrill
TIPSANDTRICKS
Inthelongrunyouwillwantdrywoodforconstructingmanytoolsandhandles,socollectgood,straighthardwoodpiecesaheadoftimesotheyhavetimetodryoutcompletelyaroundcamp.
Woodwilldryoutandcrackfasteroncethebarkisremoved.Thiscanbebothanadvantageanddisadvantage,dependingontheprojectforwhichyouarecollectingwood.Youmaywantthewoodtoformacrack,whichwillmakeiteasiertosplit.
Always hang on to the shavings and materials you collect duringwoodworkingprojects.Storetheminadryplacesotheycanactasreadytinderforfirestartinglater.
Heavy cordage such as rope is one of the hardest things to reproducefromnaturalmaterial,sothisassetwillalwaysbeapriorityforlonger-termkits.
Any wooden tool will need to be oiled to keep it from drying out overtime. Use animal fats or birch oil for this task. When a wooden tool isfirstmade,youshouldoilitleasteverydayforaweek,everyweekforamonth,andeverymonthforayear.
Chapter4
ADVANCEDFIRECRAFT
“Topokeawoodfireismoresolidenjoymentthanalmostanythingelseintheworld.”
—CHARLESDUDLEYWARNER
Fireistheresourcethatmanybushcraftersconsideronlysecondinimportancetoa good cutting tool. Fire is critical for preventing cold-weather injury andproviding general comfort around camp in cold environments. Fire can also beused to disinfect water, cook and preserve food, prepare medicines, and keepbugsatbay.Thereareprobablyahundredusesforfirethatcancontributetoallfour categories of your kit (temperature control, tools, comfort, andconveniences). Building fire in an emergency should be easy for a seasonedwoodsman.Thereareplentyofitemsonthemarkettoday,fromlighterstoroadflares,thatwillalmostensureaflamecanigniteevenmarginaltindersources.
PRIMITIVEFIRESTARTING
AsmentionedintheTenCsofSurvivability,youshouldhavethreeitemsforignitioninsupplyatalltimes:
Lighter
Ferroceriumrod
Magnificationlens(sunglass)
Beyond these methods of emergency fire starting there are a number ofprimitivemethodsthatwoodsmenhavebeenusingforages.Whatdistinguishesthesemethodsisthatyouwillbeusinganembertoignitetindermaterials.Thereare five fire-starting methods in which every woodsman should be competent:open flame (lighter), ferrocerium rod, magnification lens, flint and steel, andbow and drill. These will ensure that the woodsman is prepared and can becomfortable, or “smooth it,” in a woodland environment. Matches are notincluded in this list because I do not believe they add anything to what the firstmethods can accomplish, especially considering the issues that can encumbertheiruselikemoisture,wind,andlossofgrossmotordexterityincoldweather.Keep matches in your kit, though, to be used in conjunction with any othermethodofignition—justincase.
Thetwomostimportantprimitivemethodsoffirestartingtounderstandare:
Bowanddrill
Flintandsteel
Bothofthesemethodsusematerialfromthelandscapeandyourhigh-carbonblade. The bow and drill kit can be made with your stone or glass tools, but aknife makes the job much more convenient. Some would tell you that to trulypractice a primitive skill you must always use primitive tools. The truth is, inmodernsocietyitiseasytofindmetalandglassmaterialstouse.
THEBOWANDDRILL METHOD
Youwilluseyourbow-drillkittocreateanember,asmolderingcoaltoaddtoabird’s nest of combustible materials. The ember is a critical component of thebow-drillkitbecauseyoucannotmakefirewithoutit.
Tocreatefireyouneedthreekeyelementsknownasthetriangleoffire:heat,oxygen,andfuel.Tocreatethesmolderingcoal,yoursetmusttakemaximumadvantage of all three. Methods in survival are like processes of manufacturingin that all inputs will affect the output. It is crucial that you ensure many thingshappen—andinthecorrectorder—sothatyougetthedesiredoutput.
Thebowanddrillsethasfourcomponents:
Spindleordrill
Hearthboard
Bearingblock
Bow
Used correctly, these components work as a simple machine that removesmaterial and causes a fine dust to accumulate. The dust is then heated by thedrill’sfrictionatwhichpointoxygeninthesurroundingairwillallowignition.Choosingthecorrectcomponents,usingtherightform,andunderstandingwhenandhowmuchpressureandspeedtoapplyarethekeyinputstothisprocess.
Theonlyvariationshouldbeintheresourcesyouselect.
SPINDLE
Make the spindle from a softwood so that when you push down on it yourfingernailleavesanimpression.Poplars,cedars,willows,andpinesareallgoodwoods to use. The spindle only needs to be about the same diameter as yourthumbandthelengthfromyouroutstretchedthumbtopinky.Sinceyouwillbecarvingbothends,itisokayifitisevenalittlebitlonger.
The spindle needs to be as straight and round as possible. If your wood pieceisslightlycrookedorbent,usethebackofyourknifetocarefullyshaveitalittleatatimeuntilitisstraight.Nextitistimetopreparetheendsforuse.Oneendofthe drill should look like a worn eraser on a pencil: slightly rounded but stillbasically flat. This end will be placed on the hearth board to create maximumsurfaceareaandfriction.Youwantallthefrictionbetweenthespindleandthehearth to be in this spot. The top of the spindle needs to be shaped like the leadside of a pencil: a pointed shape but slightly dull. Make sure there is very littlefrictionatthetopofthespindlesothatyoucanpushandpulltheboweasily.
Spindle
HEARTHBOARD
Thehearthboardshouldbemadefromthesamesoftwoodasthespindle.
Thewoodshouldbedrybutnotinastateofdecay.Iprefertousewoodfromthetulip poplar because the lower branches often hang dead from the tree and,barring a hard rain, are able to dry out above ground. You will want yourfinished hearth board to be about as long as your forearm and as thick as yourthumb.Selectalimborpieceofwoodlargerthanwhatyouneedsothatyoucansplititdowntomakeaflatboardwiththesedimensions.
Carefulconstructionofthehearthboardandthenotch,whichmustbemadecorrectlyinordertoachieveacollectionofmaterialforacoalwhilegatheringenoughoxygenforignition,isthemostimportantstep.Makeasmalldivotinaspotonthehearth.Whereyoumakethisinitialstartingpointisdependenton
whetheryouareleft-orright-handed,aspartoftheboardwillbeunderyourfoot.Justmakesurethedivotisnottooclosetotheendasthatmaycausetheboardtosplitorbreakoutunderpressure.Agoodstartingpointwouldbeabout2"fromthe end closest to your dominant hand. You do not need make this divot verydeep;itonlyneedstoguidethespindleduringtheburningprocess.
BEARINGBLOCK
Thebearingblockisakeypartofthesetbutisprobablytheleastunderstoodand the most complicated to start. It should be made from the hardest woodavailable,suchashickoryorbeech.Softwoodsquicklystarttowearaway,whichcauses the spindle to rub on the angled areas below the point. This commonmistake is called shouldering out, and it will leave the operator exhausted andinhibit the set from running smoothly. Select a green sapling that is about 3" indiameterandcutouta4"–5"pieceonthewidestend.Thensplitone-thirdoffthesaplingusingyourknife.
Useyourknifetocreateasmalldivotontheflatsideofthisblock,rightinthemiddle. The divot only needs to be large enough to accept the point of thespindle.Afree-spinningdrillwillbeeasytooperate.Ifyouarehavingproblemswithyoursetup,thespinningdrillisthefirstplacetodouble-check.
Bearingblock
BOW
The bow can be made from any branch and does not have to necessarily bebent like a bow, but it needs to be fairly stiff so that it does not break understrain.Thebowshouldbeabout3'longand1⁄2"indiameter.Thelongerthebow,the fewer the number of strokes it will take to make the revolutions of thespindle.Acommonmistakeistouseabowwellunder3'.
Making the bow is as simple as tying a string to a branch. There are manycomplicatednotchesandholesyoucancreatetostringthebow,butIhavefoundthat a simple fork on one end of the stick with a loop and a stake notch on theother end to tie it off with a straight lashing and a clove hitch works best. Thestringdoesnotneedtobesotightthatitcausesthebowtobendinordertoloadthespindle,butthestringcannotbesoloosethatthedrillslipsunderdownwardpressure.
Bow
THE BIRD’SNEST
The ember that you ignite with your bow and drill will be used to ignite abird’s nest, a key part of your fire lay. The bird’s nest must be made up ofcoarse,medium,andfinematerials.Infact,mostofthematerialsyougathertomakethehearthandspindlecanalsobeusedwhenassemblingthebird’snest.Theinnerbarksofthepoplarorwillow,orbarkfromthecedar,allworkwell.There are lots of other items that can be used in the bird’s nest: for instance,small dead pine needles and materials with a natural accelerant or highlycombustibleoilslikebirchbark.Becarefulnottousetoomuchdrygrassandleavesbecausetheseitemsburnquicklyanditisimportantthatthebird’snestburnlongenoughtoignitetherestofthefirelaymaterials.
Bird’snest
ProcessingMaterialfortheBird’sNest
Processingisthetaskofshreddingbarkstoamassaquantityoffinematerial.Itisthemostimportanttaskinconstructingthebird’snest.Makesureyouplacesomething to catch the shreds so that they do not fall onto the ground. If thematerial you are collecting is still attached to the tree, you can use the back ofyour knife to process the shavings. If the material you are collecting is wet,process it immediately and spread it out over a larger surface so that it will dryquickly.Youcanplacesomeofthisprocessedmaterialbetweenlayersinthecloths around the core body area to dry them or spread them out on a darksurface (like a tarp) in the sun. Once the material is dry it can be fashioned tolooklikeabird’snest.Ifyoucomeacrossabird’snestinthewild,takealookathowitisconstructed.Whenbuildingtheirnests,birdsplacefinematerialinthemiddleorcenterandaddprogressivelycoarsermaterialastheyworktheirwayto the outside. Remember the best bird’s nest for a fire lay is an actual bird’snest,sobesuretocollectoneifyoufinditavailableandunoccupied.
BURNINGTHEHOLEANDMAKINGTHENOTCH
Nowthatthecomponentsofyourbowdrillareready,itistimetogetstarted.Firstloadthespindleontothebow.Placethespindleonthedivotonthehearthboard.Setyourselfupwiththecorrectform:Makesureyourwristislockedintoyour shin in order to prevent the spindle from moving side to side. Make suretherearenoobstructionsthatwillinterferewiththefullmovementofthebow.
Leanforwardtopushsteadydownwardpressureonthespindlewiththebearingblock.Yourchestshouldbeoveryourknee.Begintoapplyenoughdownwardpressurewiththebearingblocktoholdthedrillinthedivotasyouslowlyrotatethespindle.Itisimportantthatyoumoveslowlybecausethisstepwillmarrythedrilltothedivotforwhenyoubegintocreatethecoal.Ifyouusetheentirebowwith steady strokes, downward pressure will create enough friction to beginburningthewood.Stoponcethewoodhasburnedaroundthespindleandthingsarerunningsmoothlybecauseusingtoomuchofthematerialnowreduceswhatyouhavetomakeacoal.
Next you need to make a notch from the center of the freshly burned divothole to the edge of the hearth board. The notch must be made correctly in ordertoachieveacollectionofmaterialforacoalwhilegatheringenoughoxygenforignition.Youalwayswantthenotchtothefrontoftheboardfacingawayfromyou because this will allow you to easily view the process when operating thedrill. Take care that your notch area is not too narrow, which would cause it toclogup,preventoverspill,andlimitoxygentotheember.Alternately,makesuretheburneddivotholeisnottoobigbecausethedustneedstobecompactandtheoxygencontrolled.ApropernotchshouldbeinaVcutinwhichthebottomofthe V goes approximately 1⁄8 the size of your burned divot circle into theblackenedarea.TheanglesoftheVshouldbebetween30°–45°.
Constructingthebowdrill
MAKINGANEMBER
Nowthatyou’veburnedyourspindleholeandmadeyournotch,inspecteachcomponentcarefullybeforeattemptingtomakeacoal.Anyissuesatthispointwillonlygetworselater.
Checkthebowstringforstretchandretightenifnecessary.
Checkthebearingblocktomakesurethedivotisnotgettingtoodeepandthatthespindlehasnotbeguntoshoulderout.
Nowyouarereadytobeginmakingfirewithsticks!Thereisoneextra,smalltaskthatmakesthingseasierandmightsaveagoodcoalfromgoingoutduetoground moisture. You need to make a welcome mat, a place for your coal toflowontoonceitiscreatedinthenotch.Thewelcomematcanbeasmallsliverofbarkorathinpieceofwoodthatisabouttwotimesaswideasthenotch.Thispiecewillgounderthehearthboardtocatchthecoal.
Operatethebowslowlyatfirsttoestablishandmaintainarhythm.Yourchestshouldbeoveryourkneesothatyoucaneasilyobservetheactivityinthenotch.Youdon’tneedspeedyet;youwantsteady,longstrokesthatusetheentirelengthof the bow while you exert downward pressure. At this point the goal is toremovematerialfromtheboardandthedrillandfillthenotchwithdarkbrown
fluff. Many folks make the mistake of moving too fast, assuming speed willmakeanember,butthefactis,ifthereisnodustinthenotch,youhavenofueltocreatetheember.
Afterseveralstrokesyouwillbegintoseesmokeandthenotchwillstartto
fillwithmaterial.Oncethematerialinthenotchbeginstospillforwardinfrontof the notch you can increase the cadence of your bow strokes by about two tothreetimes;itshouldonlytakeabout10–12fullstrokesofthebowatthispointtocreateaburningcoal.Staysteadyandmakesureyoudonotmakeajerkystopthatmightdisturbthecoalyoucreated.Slowdownduringthelastcouplestrokesand stop in the same position you started. Slowly remove the spindle and bowandobservethecoal.Ifitseemstobesmokingoutsidetheboardwherethedusthasgathered,youareprobablyhomefree.Don’tgettooexcitedthough,becauseyoustillhavealotoftimeleftintheprocess,probablyabout5ormoreminutes.Slowly lift the board at an angle and tap it gently with the spindle to dislodgeanymaterialthatmightbecloggedinthenotch.Ifthecoalisstillsmokingatthispoint,youcansitbackandrelaxforaminute,catchafewbreaths,andsmile!
USING THE COALTOIGNITE THE BIRD’SNEST
Now comes the most important part of the equation. Always bring the bird’snest to the coal—never the other way around. Make any necessary adjustmentsto your bird’s nest to make sure there is plenty of fine combustible material inthemiddle.Tiltthenesttowardthewelcomematandpickupthewelcomemat,moving it toward the nest. Then slowly tap the welcome mat to dump the coalinto the nest. This should only be a 1⁄4" drop at most! Slightly fold the nest andbegintoaddsomeoxygenbybreathingintoitslightly,nothardblowsjustlightbreaths. If the coal is still burning strongly, you can tilt the nest slightly so thatyou are blowing up into it, causing the heat to rise into the bulk of the nest. Astheembergrows,smokewillbegintorollfromthebackofthenest,whichisthecue for you to blow a bit harder. As the smoke thickens you can increase theoxygenuntilitbeginstoburn.Oncetheneststartstoflame,turnitoversothe
flamesareonthebottomandheatrisestothenonburningmaterial.Finally,placeitintoyourfirelayandmakeafire!
FLINTANDSTEELMETHOD
The flint and steel method is important for you to understand for the samereason you need to know the bow and drill method: in case some kind ofemergencycausesyoutolosethemajorityofyourgear.Aslongasyoudonotloseyourprimarycuttingtoolofhigh-carbonsteel,youshouldbeabletofindarock in most regions that will drive material from the back of your blade andhelpachievethismethodofignition.Itmaytakesomesearchingtofindarockthat will work for this task, but generally any flint, chert, or quartz rock willworkifyoucanbreakorfindasharpedge.
Forthismethodyouwillneedtodrivesmallshardsofironmaterialfromtheback of your knife with a rock. These particles will combust with friction andoxygenat800°F.Whyisthisimportant?Remember,ifyouneedtomakeabow-drillfire,itisbecauseyouhavelostthemajorityofyourkit.Youwanttoavoidhaving to make two bow-drill fires if you can help it, so you make charredmaterialassoonasyouhavesetthefirstfire.
MATERIALFORFLINTAND STEELIGNITION
The best way to ensure an easier fire after the bow drill is to have charredmaterials ready for the next time around so a flint-and-steel fire can be madeinstead. Some funguses such as chaga (true tinder fungus) will take the sparkfromthismethodwithouthavingtocharitfirst.Youcanalsogetthedustfromsome types of shelf fungus (Fomes fomentarius) to accept a spark. Toaccomplishthisyouwillrequireasmallpileofdustthatyouhavecreatedwithasaw cut or by scraping with the back of the knife. Once the dust has ignited itmust be left to grow into a coal, whereas the true tinder fungus can be ignitedwithinalargerpieceandthedustisnotnecessary.Witheither,youwanttousethesofter,innermaterials,nottheouter,hardsurface.
Analternativeischarmaterial,whichevenbetterensuresasparkforignition.Charcanbemadefrommanythingsyoufindinthelandscape,includingpunky,
decayingwoodortheinnerpithfromsomeplantslikemullein.Youcanalsousematerialsthatare100percentcottonfromclothingoryourkit.
MakingChar
The easiest way to make char is to place your chosen material in a metalchamber where you can subject it to high heat while limiting oxygen. In thischamber,gasesareabletoescapeasthematerialisheatedinside.Astainless-steelbottleandnestingcupwillworknicely,oreveninanemergencyanoldcanwith a flat rock. Place your material inside the chamber and then place thechamber in the fire. Coals are better than direct flame but either will work. Asthe material is heated, smoke—which is actually gas—will begin to escape thechamber from any place that is not completely sealed. This is okay just so longasoxygencannotenterthechamber.Oncethesmokestops,thecharringshouldbe complete. It is very important to wait until the chamber is completely coolbeforeopeningitbecauseifoxygencontactshotmaterialitwillcauseittoburn.
Inspect the char. If it is black and frail looking, it is most likely ready. If thematerialisbrown,closethechamberandputitbackintothefire.Youcanalsotestasmallamountofthechartomakesureitisready.ManywoodsmencarryaspecificcontainersuchasanAltoidstinoranoldshoepolishcan,calledachar
tin,forfirematerialandcharring.Strikesparksfromthemetaltooldirectlyintothetin,whichincreasesthesurfaceareaforcatchinganember.Onceanemberiscreated,placeitintothebird’snestasdescribedforthebow-drillfire.
SOLARFIRE
Thereisahugeadvantagetousingasunglasstocreateanember.Sincethesunisarenewableresource,youarenotexpendinganythingfromyourkitwhenyouuseit.Allthematerialsformakinganembercanbecollectedfromthewildandarenotdifficulttouse.Asunglasscanigniteanycharmaterialoreitherofthefungus species previously mentioned—which can be used in a raw state, oftenstraight from the tree for this method. Horse hoof fungus may work better as adust,butitwillmakeanicecoalinashortamountoftime.Youcanalsocreateanemberbycompressingnaturalmaterialslikecattaildownorpoplarbarksintoa small, tight ball about 1⁄4" in diameter. Then use the glass to burn into thematerial,creatingasmolderingember.
AWORD ON MATCHES
Matcheshavebeenthestandbyforstartingfiresformorethan150years,butthey really should just be carried as an extra resource in addition to the threemainignitionsources:alighter,alargeferroceriumrod,andasunglass.Matchesare extremely sensitive to weather and moisture, and you can only carry somany. It would take several boxes of matches to come close to the open-flamepower and longevity of a single BIC cigarette lighter. The one small advantageofmatchesmaybethetinyamountoftinderawoodenmatchrequires,butthisisnegligible in a proper fire lay. Many institutions still teach lighting fires withmatches, but I believe this method contributes nothing toward true long-termsurvivabilityinthewilderness.
TIPSANDTRICKS
Remember that the bow and drill is a machine; the longer the bow, thefewer strokes it takes to achieve revolutions of the spindle, and thesmallerthespindle,themorerevolutionsperstrokeofthebow.Thereisahappymediumthattakessomeexperiencetofind.Muchisdependentonyour own method and body type, but a good standard is to start with athumb-sizedspindleand3'bow.
Always keep an eye out for rocks that may be hard enough to drive asparkfromhigh-carbontools.Pickuprocksasyouarewalkingandtrythem. If they work, throw them in your pack; if not, toss them aside.Chertandflintwillhaveaslickshinetoitwhenwetandmaybewhite,gray,orpalehuesofredandpink;quartzwillalwaysbeagoodbet.
Collecttindersourcesatanyopportunity,evenifjustwalkingfromonelocation to another. Keep an eye out for any hanging, stringy barkmaterials.Honeysucklevineswillshedthinlayersofbarkallyearlong.
Deadplants,especiallygoldenrod,haveflammableflowertopsandhollowstems.Theseareterrificsourcesoftinderandkindlingandgenerallygrowinlargegrovesofopenfields.
Asmallstubfromausedcandleisalwaysagoodsafetydevicetohavewhenfirestarting.Lightthecandlewiththefirstopenflameandsetitaside until the fire has become sustainable. If you need a longer openflame for marginal materials, this will save precious lighter fluid.Candlesaremucheasiertomakethananewlighter.
Chapter5
SHELTERING
“Shelter provides a microenvironment that supplements inadequate clothing orallowsyoutoshedcumbersomelayers,especiallywhenyouwanttostopmovingorwhenyouwanttosleepincoldweather.Shelteralsoenhancestheeffectofawarmingfire.”
—MORSKOCHANSKI
Whenplanningforshelteryouneedtoconsiderbothlong-termandshort-termoptions.Evenifyouintendtobuildabasecampwithapermanentshelter,youmightstillneedtotravelforanightortwotohunt,trap,orfish.Forthisreason,yourkitshouldincludeasystemthattakesyoueasilyfromcabintowoodswithsuppliesthatwillbeusefulineithersituation.Thebaseofthiskitwillinclude:
Waterprooftarp(Egyptiancottonoilclothworkswellhere)Woolblanket
Simplesleeveofcanvas(likeapainter’scanvas)ifyouplantomakearaisedbed
THEFOURWs
AsdiscussedindetailinBushcraft101,therearefourcriticalelementstoconsiderwhenlookingforaplacetobuildyourshelter:
WindWaterWood
Widowmakers
WIND
Thedirectionofthewindwillhaveanimpactonyourabilitytosafelykeepafire going and heat your shelter. Look for middle high-ground areas where thewindispresentbutnottoostrong.
WATER
Lookforanearbyareasuchasacreekbedthatcanprovideasteadysourceofwater.
WOOD
You will need a lot of wood for the fire, building shelter, and making otherresources.Alargefallentreeprovidesagoodsourceoffirewood,andtreessuchaspinescanprovideasteadysupplyoffatwood.
WIDOWMAKERS
Examinethetreesaroundyou—especiallylargetrees—verycarefullyforanydeadbranchesthatcouldposeadangertoyouandyourcampsite.
ESTABLISHINGABASECAMP
Setting up a base camp saves you from having to carry all of your supplies onyour back at all times. Of course, building a more permanent shelter is a largeundertaking,anditwilllikelytakeacoupledaysofwork,maybeevenaslongasa week if you are without a helping hand. Bearing that in mind, the first thingyou will need to do when you arrive at the place where you intend to constructyour base camp is to build a temporary shelter to keep you until the permanentshelterisready.Justrememberthatyouneedtofinishbuildingyourpermanentshelterbeforetheweatherdemandsone.
For your permanent shelter, you can either build a larger version of yourtemporarybasecamp(likeahunter’sstation)fromnaturalmaterials,oryoucanpackalargercanvasshelterinyourkit.Whicheveryouchoose,itmusthaveatleastthreesidesforprotectionfrominclementweatherandalargefirebackingorportablewoodstovethatisatleastashighasthepitchorroofoftheshelter.In colder weather a raised bed is a must, but if the weather is fair, a hammockmaybeenough.Followingaretarpconfigurationsthatcanbeusedforaroving-type camp, working-camp structures, and finally methods for building apermanentshelter.
ROVINGCAMPS
InBushcraft101wediscussedthemostcommontarpsetups.Hereyouwilllearnabout some simple makeshift camp convenience items that will make commontarpandothertemporarysetupsevenmorecomfortable.
TENTS
Therearemanytypesofcanvastentsandyurtsthatcanbeeasilytransportedaslongasyouhaveconveyances.Rememberthatlargecanvasescanbedifficulttoheat,soforaseasonalshelter,thinkaboutselectingsomethingsmall.Muchofthe decision about what type of canvas shelter to use will depend on yourenvironment.Open-facedtentsliketheWhelenprovidethreesidesofcoverageand can be used with a hammock. For colder weather I would recommendsomethingthatcanhouseastovelikeasmallwalltent.
Smallwalltentscanbeverycomfortableandoffergreatprotectionfromtheelements especially if a stove jack is installed. Many of the gold rush minerslived in wall tents that were placed on raised platforms. These temporarystructures were large enough that they could even hold a few small furnishingssuch as a chair and a small table. Within the wall tent you can easily fit ahammock,acot,orevenbuildaraisedbed.Thebiggestconvenienceofthewalltent is that it provides coverage on all four sides, which makes it operate like acanvascabin.An8'×10'walltentprovidesplentyofroomforoneperson.Itcanbe used temporarily with all the same fixtures and amenities, such as lightingandsleepsetups,thatyouwilleventuallyuseforamorepermanentshelter.
STAKINGANDTIE-OUTMETHODS
Nomatterwhatkindoftemporaryshelteryouuse,itwillneedtobetieddownor staked so that it stays secure. There are many methods for securing yourshelter,allofwhichdependonthematerialsthatwereusedtomanufactureitandtheenvironmentalconditionsinwhichithasbeenerected.Irecommendstaying
awayfromgrommetsaltogether;theyseemtobetheweakestlinkinanyshelternomatterthematerialbecausetheytendtoweakenthesurroundingfabric.
Instead,optforthetie-outorstakeloopswheneverpossible.Ifyouhaveonlyablankcanvaswithnowaytotieitoff,placeatoggleonthecornersandfolditoverthetoggle;trapthiswithajamknotonthecornerofthetarp.
A togglecanbeusedtotiedownatent
You can also use a stone or even a wad of dead leaves to place a ball of sortsintheareathatneedstobetiedandthentieajamknotoverthewholething.Intheolddays,musketballswereoftenusedforthistypeofconfiguration.
Aballtie-downonatarpconfiguration
Alltielinesshouldbemadeadjustablefortensionsotheycanbetightenedorloosened when necessary. Adding this adjustability makes it easy to set up andtakedownyourshelter.Todothis,useflatslabsofwoodwithaholedrilledoneach end that is large enough for the ropes to pass through. The rope is thenplaced in this toggle, one end in each hole, and knotted. If you are using loopsfor tie-out points, it makes sense to pass the rope through the loop beforeknottingononeendofthisslidingtoggle.Afterthisitcanbeloopedoverastakeand then adjusted for tension. Another way of doing this is to use a standardtrucker’shitchknotwithatensioninglooponthetie-outropes.Youcanalsouseabarrelknot,whichwillself-tightenwhenpressureisapplied.
Anotheroptionistostakeyourshelterrightintotheground.Inthiswayyouare almost creating a microclimate, and wind and weather will have very littleeffectonit.Anoisy,loosetarpthatisblowingaroundinthewindwillbeanall-nightaggravation.Besurealllinesaretightandsecureenoughtowithstandanyunexpectedweatherconditions.Stakesmadeofwoodworkwellforlonger-termcampsbecausethewoodswellswithmoisture,whichfurthersecuresitintotheground. The length of the stake is really dependent on ground condition: Uselongerstakesformoistgroundandshorterstakesfordryground.
Ifthegroundisextremelyhard,youmightneedtousemetalinstead.InthosecasesIrecommendfashioningstakesfroma3⁄8"steelstocklikerebarwitha2"×120° bend at the top. If stakes are not practical at all, you can improvise withthingslikelogs,rocks,orbagsfilledwithsomethingheavylikesmallerrocksordirt. If the ground is extremely soft, it may take a chain of two stakes to securethetentinhighwindconditions.
Stake-drivingangles
PERMANENTSHELTER OPTIONS
The best type of permanent shelter depends on the environment, seasonalchanges,resourcesavailable,equipmentonhand,andtheskillleveloftheuser.Here we will discuss a few simple designs that do not require vocationalexpertise. In my experience, anything that is too difficult or complicated toconstructislikelytobeleftundone.
CAVESANDROCKHOUSES
Long before man started constructing his own shelter he adopted existingelements in nature to be his home, just as animals do. These caves and stoneshelters endure in nature, and although it takes a little effort to make themcomfortable,theycanstillbeagreatchoiceifthesituationarises.Infact,therearemillionsofpeopleworldwidewholiveincavedwellings.
THEDOWNSIDEOFCAVES
Itisimportanttorememberthedangersthatmaypresentthemselvesinnaturaldwellings.
Awetcavecanbeamiserableplacetosleep.Ifyouareinanareawithhighhumidityorlotsofannualrainfall,cavesarenotthebestchoice.Cavemoisturecreatesseveraldangers,includingbacteriagrowth,mold,weakstoneintegrityofthe cave itself, and a dampness that could leave you cold most of the time. Acave might also already be home to insects and other mammals such as bats,cats,orbears.
RAISEDPLATFORMSHELTERS
Araisedplatformsheltercanbeconstructedbyattachingwoodpieceswithsimplelashingsandcrossmemberstocreatetheplatform.Justrememberthatthemorecomplextheshelter,themoreresourcesandtoolsthatarerequiredtoconstruct it. The raised platform should be at least 3'–5' above ground level;again,thisdependsonthefactorslikewildlife,resources,andenvironment.
Makethisplatformatleast2'widerthantheinsidedimensionoftheshelteryouplantoplaceontopofitandatleast6'longertoleaveroomforopenworkareas.Thecoveringorconstructionoftheshelteritselfcanbeasimplehoopdesignora square structure. The hoop design is by far the easiest to build and maintain,anditwillshedwaterthebestaswell.
Hoopdesignonashelterconfiguration
LOGCABINS
Buildingasmallcabinwithasinglepitchedroofisafairlysimpleundertakingfrom a design perspective. However, it is labor-intensive and requires a greatdeal of timber resources. An 8' × 10' cabin should be sufficient for a singleperson. Anything larger will be difficult to heat. You will want logs of at least8"–10"diameterforthis,andsizewilldictatethenumberneeded.
Basiclogcabindesign
EARTHENSTRUCTURES
Sheltersconstructedfromearthenmaterialsareagoodoptioniftheresourcesareavailable. Partial wood construction shelters can also be covered with earthenmaterialsforfarbetterinsulationincold-weatherenvironments.
SOD
Sod is slabs of ground materials and dirt to which the existing plants orgrasses are still attached. Sod makes good shelter coverage because it shouldcontinuegrowingfoliageovertime,whichwillonlyaddtoitswaterproofingandinsulationcapabilities.Sodcanbecuttoanywidthandlengthbutshouldalwaysbe at least 4" thick. If you intend to use sod materials on a roof, ensure that thesupporting structure can hold the weight before covering. You will wantsemiclearsodthatdoesnotcontainsmalltreesorbushes,whichmaylatergrowlargerootsthatinterferewiththerestofthestructure.
NATURALCEMENTS
Naturalcementhasbeenusedforthousandsofyearstobuildmanythingsfromshelterstructurestohearths,ovens,andstorageareas.Youcanevenusenaturalcementtodevelopyourownblocksorbricks.
Thefollowingmaterialsarerequiredtomakenaturalcement:
Clay-basedsoil(ifthesoilfeelssmoothandslickwhenwet,itmostlikelyhasahigherclaycontent)
GrassesandlongerfibersthatcanbeusedasrebarAsourceofwater
Abucketorcontainerformixing
Tomakethecement,collectenoughclay-basedsoiltofillyourbucket.Youwillalsoneedagoodarmloadofdrygrassesabout6"–12"longorotherfibrous
plantmaterials.Long,drygrassesworkmuchbetterthangreengrassforthisproject.
Nowmixsomewaterwiththeclayuntilyougetasquishyconsistencythatisnottoorunny.Ifyouareusingthisforamortarorchink,mixitthinner.Youcanmixthecementrightinthebucket,butIfindthatatarpworksverywellforthisprocess.Spreadoutthetarp,laydownthegrassesfirst,andthendumpthemudontopofthem.Themosteffectivewaytoincorporatethemixiswithyourbarefeet so that the materials really grind together. You can fold the tarp over thematerials and walk on the enclosed mass, or you can simply use your hands tomakesurethegrassesarewellmixedandnothingisleftdryorunmixed.
Usethecementimmediatelytocreateyourstructureorasmortarforyourproject.Ifyouwanttosaveitforlater,youcanshapeitintobricks.
CAMPAMENITIES
Nomatterthesizeorpermanenceofthebasecampyoudecidetoconstruct,there are a few camp amenities you should include for both comfort andconvenience.
LIGHTING
You need to think about sources of lighting to use as the fire dies down orbeforethefireisbuilt.Headlampsarefineforaquickoutingaslongasyourkitincludes spare batteries. For the long term, candles tend to work best. Besidesproviding light, candles also have an open flame to aid in emergency or late-nightfirestarting.Beeswaxcandlescanalsobemeltedandusedformanyotherpurposessuchasalubricantorwoodpolish.Youcanevenrubitonyourtoolstopreventrusting.
Asimplelanterncanbefashionedfromanemptycantoprotectthecandlefrom going out in the wind. If your hunting or trapping campaign has beensuccessful, use fat from the animal to make oil lamps. Any concave container,fromashelltoahollowpieceofwood,willmakeaneasylamp.Allyouneedisa wick, which can be made from any soluble material such as cotton rope ornaturalcordage.Youcanalsouseaballofcompressedcattailflufforcordedcedarbarkforaquick,temporarywick.
Makecandlesbydippingawickofnaturalcordintoapanofmeltedtallow,lettingitcool,dippingagain,andlettingitcool.Thethicknessincreaseseachtime.Thedifferencebetweentallowandlardisthetallowwillhardenatroomtemperature and lard will stay soft. Torches are easily made by dipping deadplanttopslikemulleinintofatandlettingthemdry.
SOAP
Many plants have natural saponins, chemicals that are created by thesaponificationprocesswhenmakingsoaps.Thissubstanceoccursnaturallyin
many plants and creates a nice lather that can be used as a natural soap. In theeasternwoodlands,thebestchoiceforthisisthebrackenfernbecauseitsrootishigh in saponins. Yucca is another American plant that can be used for thispurpose.
Simplelanternmadefromacan
LATRINE
For short-term outings it is easy to simply walk away from camp and dig asmall cat hole for a latrine. Outings that last more than a couple of days,however, will necessitate a pit latrine. This pit must be a comfortable distancefromcampbutwellawayfromanygroundwatersource.Generallyspeaking,thepit latrine should be as deep as possible but should be kept to at least 3' abovethe water table. Finding a spot this far above the water table can be a trickyundertaking depending on camp location and elevation. If you find yourselfneedingtochoosebetweenafartherwalkandpossiblegroundwaterpollution,doyourselfafavorandtakethewalkuphill.Agoodpracticeforwildernesspitlatrinesistoaddashesfromthecampfiredaily.Thiswillcoverthesmell,breakdown the fecal matter, and detract pests like flies. Once the pit is full within afootofthetop,coveritwithdebrisanddiganewpitinadifferentlocation.
Considerthismatterseriouslyattheoutsetwhenchoosingalong-termcamplocation.
LINES
Ridgelinesarethebestplacetohangalantern,keepclothingofftheground,or suspend a bag of goodies that may be needed at night. Drying lines shouldalways be used to ensure you have a place to air bedding material and clothingduringthedayorwhenwet.Beatingawoolblankethungoveralinewillkeepitfreeofdirt,deadskincells,andmanypests.
ESTABLISHINGASLEEPSYSTEM
Sleepinggearcanhaveabigimpactontheweightofyoursupplies—asimplecanvasandacoupleofwoolblanketscanaddasmuchas20poundstoyourkit.Still,agoodnight’ssleepofatleast6hoursisoneofthemostimportantaspectsoflong-termcomfortandsurvival.Oftenmysleepsystemmakesuptwo-thirdsofmykit’sweight.Thefollowingitemsareasolidbasisforasleepsystemthatwillbeeffectiveineitheratemporaryorpermanentshelter:
Wool blanket (or two)MaterialsforaraisedbedCanvas
Largeneedle,likeasailneedle,thatisheavyenoughtopunctureyourcanvas
#36banklineforstitchingthecanvas
Syntheticsleepingbagincaseyouarenotabletoreturntothebasecampforanightortwo
BUILDINGARAISEDBED
A raised bed is the best weapon against ground temperature when sleeping.You can manufacture a simple mattress, or browse bed, with a heavy painter’scanvasorwoolblanket.Firstfoldyourcanvaswidthwise(notlengthwise).Itis
okayforyourfeettohangofftheend,butitisimportantthatyourbedbewideenough for you to roll over without falling. Thread your needle with the #36bankline and whip-stitch the ends of your canvas together on two sides. Thestitchingdoesnothavetobeperfect;anythingbetween1"–2"stitcheswillworkfine.Itshouldnottakemorethanabout15minutestostitchuptwosidesofthecanvas.
Nextstuffyourbedwithleavesandgrass.Thisisthemosttime-consuming
partofmanufacturingaraisedbed.Stuffthebedandthencompressthematerialto make room for more. Stuff the bed again and compress the material to makeroomformore.Thisprocesscantakeaslongasanhour.Whenthebedispackedwith about 4" of compressed insulation, stitch up the last side with your whipstitch.
SETTINGUPYOURSLEEPAREA
Fold over your tarp and lay it down where it will act as a moisture barrierbetweenthegroundandyourraisedbed.Thewoolblanketwillkeepyouwarmwhile sleeping. Carry some sort of bag—even your haversack—that can beemptiedatnightandfilledwithspareclothingtoactasapillow.Apillowisatremendouscomfortthatisoftencompletelyunderrated.
HAMMOCKS
Hammocks are an option but will require an underquilt or some sort ofinsulationtobattleconvectionissuesthatcomewithcolderweather.Acheapway to deal with this issue is to place a thick pad like a ground mat in thehammockandareflectivebattingontopofthat.Thenplaceyoursleepingbagorblankets right on this pad. Reflectix is an insulation used for the home and canbe purchased at any hardware store. It comes in 2'–3' widths and is basically abubblewrapwithMylarcovering.Theotheroptionisanunderquiltthatwilltrapwarmairbetweenthequiltandthehammock.
TIPSANDTRICKS
There are many good, modern synthetic materials you can use as asleepingbag.Justrememberthatthesematerialswillnotbeaslonglastingovertimeandaremuchmoresusceptibletothingssuchasanerrantsparkfromanall-nightfire.
Canvas that is untreated may be susceptible to mold. Treating it beforeusewithaguardingagentisprudent.CanvascanalsobeverysusceptibletoUVbreakdownataltitudesofabout3000',sotreatitorbuySunforgertentcanvas,whichwillbethebestbetforalong-lastingshelter.
Mostred-meatanimalshavetallowintheirfat,andmostwhite-meatanimalslikehogshavelard.
Inareaswherestakeswillnotpenetratehardearthorrocks,longlogsorlargerockscanbeusedassubstitutesforstakes.
Rememberthatanyinsulationmadefromnaturalmaterialonthegroundtobattleconductionshouldbe4"thickwhencompressed.
Chapter6
KNOTS,BINDINGS,ANDLOOMS
“Bushcraftiswhatyoucarryinyourmindandyourmuscles.”
—RAYMEARS
Cordageisoneofthemostvaluableresourcesthatyoucarryinyourkit.Itsusesare endless, from lashing objects together in woodworking projects to weavingadditionalimplementstoaddcomforttoyourcamp.
CORDAGEANDROPES
Forlong-termexcursions,herearethemostbeneficialandmultifunctionalropesandmaterialstocarryinyourkit:
Naturalropes
Paracord
Bankline
Naturalstrings
Webbing
Muletape
NATURALROPEVERSUSSYNTHETIC ROPE
Naturalropeiseasiertouseandfarmoreversatilethanmostsynthetics.Thisistrueespeciallywhenitisbrokendownintosmallerfibersorcords.Syntheticropes,suchasriggingropeorKevlarclimbingandstatic-lineropes,arewidelyavailableandcanbeagoodresourcetokeeponhandifyouhaveroominyourkit. Just know that while these synthetics are strong for their relative size, thefiberstendtobreakdownafterlengthyexposureinthewilderness,whichmakesthemdifficulttouse.
MAKINGROPE
Making rope is a useful skill to possess in the event you find yourself in asituation that requires more cordage than what you currently have in your kit.Youcanmakearopebycombiningandtwistingthreeormorestrandstogether.Therearethreecomponentstoarope:
Fibers:Thefibersarethesmallestmaterialsthataretwistedtogethertocreatetheyarns.
Yarns:Yarnsaremultiplefiberstwistedtogetherinthesamedirection.
Strands:Strandsaremultipleyarnsagaintwistedinasingledirection.
Ropecomponents
OPERATINGAROPETWISTER
Ropeismadefrommultiplestrandstwistedintwodifferentdirections.Itonlytakesonepersontooperateasimpleropetwister,whichcanproducelengthsofropethatareabout20'long.Tomakeenough,youwillneedtofeedabouteleventimestheamountofcordyouintendtoproducethroughtheropetwister.Attachone end of the cord to a stationary object and make one loop so that you canattach it to the spinner and twist. Start by spinning in a clockwise fashion untilthecordbeginstowindonitselfwhenitisslack.Atthispoint,dividethecordinthirds and make two loops: one to place over the original stationary object andonetoplacearoundthetwister.Youshouldnowhavethreestrandsoflargercordagain between the twister and the static end. Begin spinning again incounterclockwisefashionuntilthedesiredtightnessisachieved.Oncetheropeisfinished, pull hard against the static object to “set” the rope. Cut the ends andwhip-stitchthemtofinishyourrope.
Step1
Step2
CONSERVINGCORDAGE
One of the most important skills in wilderness survival is proper use ofcordage.Whetheritissyntheticropeyouhavecarriedinyourkitornaturalropeyou have manufactured yourself, cordage is a precious resource that should betreated with care. In fact, I prefer to use knots that can easily be untied so thatthe rope can always be recovered without having to cut it. When working withsyntheticrope,Ialsoavoidcuttinglengthsshorterthanabout20',orfour“pulls”fromtheroll,unlessitisabsolutelynecessary.By“pulls”Imeanpullsfromthe
rollthatarethelengthofmyoutstretchedarms,fromonehandtotheother.Forthis reason, it is always best to use natural bark cordage for small binding orlashingprojects.
KNOTS
Bushcraft 101 covered some basic knots (bowline, fisherman’s, Prusik, timberhitch,clovehitch,andtrucker’shitch)thatyouneedtoknowwhensettingupashort-term camp. Understanding how to make joining and jamming knots andknowingwhentousethemwillhelpyouconservecordageandropesonalong-termexcursion.
STOPKNOTS
The stop knot is used as a security knot in conjunction with jamming andjoining knots. Both joining and jamming knots are used to join two cords orropestogethertoincreasecordagelength.Astopknotisanoverhandknotthatistiedtokeepthelinefromslippingundertension,passingbackthroughahole,orevenslippingthroughanotherknot.
Stopknot
JOININGKNOTS
Ajoiningknotisusedtoconnecttwodifferentpiecesofcordthatmayormaynotbeofthesamediameter.
SheetBend
Thesheetbendisagreatknotforjoiningtworopesofequaldiameterwhenloopsarenotavailableontheendofthelines.
Sheetbendknot
LooptoLoop(SquareKnot)
Thelooptoloopisgenerallyusefulwhenjoininglineswithloopsontheendofbothlines.
Looptoloop
JAMMINGKNOTS
Ajammingknotisusedtojointwopiecesofcordageofthesamediametertogether,especiallyifthelinetobeextendedhasaloopontheend.Thebeautyoftheseknotsishoweasilytheycanbeloosenedforadjustmentorremovalontheflyorinahurry.
CanadianJam(ArborKnot)
TheCanadianjamisbestusedasatensioningknotwhencinchingaloadsuchas a blanket to a frame or a bedroll. This knot can also work for things liketensioningtwocrossbracesonaraft.
Canadianjam
Lark’sHeadJam
This knot works very well when attaching cords to a line for the purpose ofweavingorhangingsomethingfromthem.Youcanevenusethistypeofknotfortoggles when you are not able to double over the line or when you simply needtohangasingleline.Itisbestusedwithastopknotonthetagend.
Lark’sheadjam
CloveHitchJam
The clove hitch jam is a knot that will actually cause a constriction to theattachedlinetokeepthetailsfromslidingindependently.Essentiallythisknotself-locksundertension.
IN-LINE LOOPS
In-lineloopsareforastaticholdorconnectionbutcanalsobeusedasastaticpulleyfortensioningaroundanobject.
SlipLooporHitchLoop
Thesliploopisusedtomakeatensiondevice,kindoflikeapulley.Itisusedforthingslikeholdingloadstightorpullingaridgelinetaut.Thesliploopcanbeeasilyincorporatedintothestandinglineandcomesundonewithasimplepull.
Sliploop
ButterflyLoop
Thebutterflyloopwillformastableandsecureloopthatdoesnotslipwithinaline.Thisknotcanbeeasilybrokenoruntiedevenwhenitisundertension.
Youcanalsoeasilyadjustthesizeoftheloop.
Butterflyloop
SLIDERS
Slidersaredefinedasknotsthatwillslideupanddownastaticrope,tiedonitself,orknotsmadebyattachingoneropetoanother.
BarrelKnots/BloodKnots
Barrelknotscanbeusedononesideofastandingorloopedlinetocreateasliderthatcanbeadjustedfortensioningguylines.Ifitistiedontwoopposinglines, it becomes a joining or blood knot. The blood knot is often used formonofilamentorfishinglines.
Barrelknot
END-OF-LINE LOOPS
Theseknotsaresimplyusedtocreatealooptiedinoneendofalineorrope.Thiscanbeusedasanattachmentpointoratensioninglooparoundanobjectaswhenyouareputtinguparidgelinearoundatree.
Poacher’sNoose
Thepoacher’snooseisaspecialtyknotusedforsnaringthatincorporatesalark’sheadloopontheendofthesnareloopsothatitwillconstrictandstaytightundertension.
Poacher’snoose
FigureEight
Figure-eight loops create end-of-line loops that are easily broken or untiedaftertensionisappliedtotheloop.Theseloopsworkmuchbetterthanasimpleoverhandknottocreateend-of-lineloops.
Figureeight
Bowline
Thebowlineisanotherend-of-lineloopthathasafewadvantagesovertheothers.Forone,ittightensorconstrictsagainstthelineastensionisapplied,whichmakesitagoodrescueloop.Itcanalsoeasilybetiedintothelineaftertheropeisalreadypassingaroundanotherobject.
Bowline
HITCHES
Hitchesaregenerallytemporaryconnectionsthatcanbeeasilyuntiedoradjusted.
SlipperyHitch
Theslipperyhitchisaquickhitchtosecureobjectsthatarenotunderaload.
Itcouldbeusedwhenhangingacordfromanotherlineorabranch.Itisaquick-releaseknotsoitisespeciallyhelpfulforthingssuchastyingalinefromaboattoatreeontheshore.
Slipperyhitch
Trucker’sHitch
Thetrucker’shitchincorporatesanin-linelooptosecurealoadoratensionedline.Itcanbesetuptoquick-releasesothatloadscanbeeasilyuntiedorsothatridgelinesatthecampsitecanbeeasilymoved.
Trucker’shitch
TimberHitch
The timber hitch is a great starting hitch for any lashings because it is aconstrictingknotthatreliesonfrictioninordertohold.Itcanbeeasilyundonetorecovercordageandcanbeusedattheendofbowstrings.
Timberhitch
BINDINGS
Bindings are a combination of wraps, knots, and hitches that are used forsecuring something. They can be used to secure loads that will be transportedover a distance or to secure a series of contents rolled into a package such as atarporblanket.Theycanevenbeusedtoattachabundletosomethingelsesuchasapackframe,horse,orsled.
BASKETWEAVING
Baskets make excellent containers for storage and carrying food while youharvest it. The simplest method of basket weaving starts with making a crosslashinginasquare-lashfashionwithfourflexibletwigs,shoots,orsplitsoneachsideforatotalofeightsticks.Youwillneedtoaddaninthstickintothisasyoubegintoweaveyourbasket.Youcanweaveinanymaterialsuchasvines,bark,orsplits.Weaveinandoutofthesplits.Youcanstarttoshapethisweaveintoabasketbygraduallyliftingthesidesandcontrollingthetightnessoftheweavetoformaroundcontainer.Finishthisoffbywrappinganotherpieceofthematerialinanoverhandrunning-stitchfashionaroundthetopandtrimanyexcesssticksortwigsoffthefinishedproduct.
Basketweave
SIMPLECOILBASKETRY
Coil basketry is a simple skill that employs pliable materials to makecontainers.Ittakesagoodamountofcordagetosewacoilbasket—especiallyalarge one—but the materials used to make the coils are quite simple. Chooseitems that can be doubled in half without breaking, such as pine needles andotherleaves.Thenyouwillneedsomebanklineandashuttleoraneedle.Alarge
sailneedleworksverywellhere,butyoucanalsomakeyourownoutofwoodorbone.Startwithasectionofthematerialyouplantocoil.Doubleitoverandwrap it into a tube, and then make progressive coils in a circular fashion,wrappingorsewingwiththebanklinetoholdthemtogether.
Coilbasketry
BARKBASKETS
Bark harvested from the yellow poplar in the spring can be fashioned into adurablebasket.Yellowpoplarbarkcanalsobemanipulatedintotubularshapesandusedforquivers.Toharvestthebark,scoretheouterbarkofthetreedowntothesapwoodwithaknifeoraxe.Thenscoreanotherlineinacircularfashionabove and below that first line. This method, known as “ringing the tree,” willusuallykillthetree,sotakecaretoselectapoplarwithalotofotherresourcesthatyoucanuseovertime.
Oncethebarkisscoredyoucanuseasharpstickorspudtopeelitawayfromthe tree. For a simple basket, cut a piece of bark that is two-and-a-half timeslongerthanthefinishedbasketneedstobehigh.Selectawidthbasedonthesizeyou want your container to be when it is complete. Cut two half-moons on theoutsideofthebarkrightinthemiddleofyourpiece.Thehalf-moonsshouldbefacingeachothersothattheirbottomandtoptipsaretouching.Thesecutswill
be the fold lines that form the bottom of the basket. You can then fold up thesidesandlacethem.Foldupthepiecewiththebarkfacingout,anddrillholesupthesidesusingyourawl.Youcanusestrongcordagetolaceupthebasketwithsimplexstitches.Addahandletothetopifneeded.Yellowpoplarismyfavoritefor this, but you can also use birch. If you plan to only make a very smallcontainer,maybeyoucanavoidstrippingalargesectionofbark.Inthesecases,placeacoatingofmudovertheopenareaofthetreetohelpprotectitandgiveitachancetoheal.
WEAVING
Weavingisbroadskillthatcanproduceanythingfromstrapsforabackpacktobasketsorevensheltercoverings.Itcanbeassimpleasweavingtogethersmallstrandsofcordageorascomplexasusingaloomtoweavethreadsintoawidetextile. In this section I will describe some of the most versatile weavingtechniquesthathaveservedmewellinwildernessoutings.
Beforewegetstarted,herearesometermsyoushouldknow:
Crosshatch—Twoseriesofparallellinesthatflowinoppositedirectionssothattheycrosseachother.
Warp—Thesetoflengthwisethreadsonaloom.
Weft—Thethreadthatisdrawnthroughthewarpthreadstocreateatextile.Shed—The separation between the upper and lower warp threads throughwhichtheweftiswoven.
Heddle—Thepartoftheloomthatseparatesthewarpthreadssothattheweftcanbethreadedthroughthem.
Shuttle—Anythingthatwillcarrytheweftacrossthewarpandthroughtheshed.
DIAGONALFINGERWEAVING
Diagonalfingerweavingisaneffectivetechniquetomakeshortstrapsthatcanbeusedforthingssuchasbackpacks,gunslings,orotherprojectsthatarenotparticularlylongorwide.
To get started, place two nails about 6" apart in a piece of stationary woodsuch as a workbench. Your weaving stick will rest on top of these nails whileyouwork.Selectaweavingstickabout½"indiameterand12"–16"long.
Double5strandsofcord,suchasjutestring,overtheweavingstickandsecureeachcordwithalark’sheadknot.Youwillthenhave10strandshangingoffyourweavingstick.
Useasecondstick,similarindiameterandlengthtoyourweavingstick,asawinding stick to be placed below the two nails that are holding your weavingstick.Wrapfinishedproductaroundthewindingstickasyouweave.Thisallowsyou to stay close to your work area and use the tension created as the weavingstickrollsagainstthosenailstocreateasecureweave.
Nowitistimetogetstarted.Setyourweavingstickontopofthenails.Loopthe tenth strand over the right-hand nail in your workbench. For the first row,take the first strand, which will be your active strand, and loop it under thesecond strand, over the third strand, under the fourth strand, over the fifth . . .andsoforthuntilyoureachtheninthstrand.Thentakethetenthstrandoffthenailandreplaceitwithyouractivestrand.
Forthesecondrow,takewhatisnowyourfirststrandandloopit,thistimeoverthesecondstrand,underthethirdstrand,overthefourthstrand...andsoforth until you reach the ninth strand. Pull the tenth strand off the nail andreplaceitwithyouractivestrand.
Continue this process, taking the first strand in the line and alternating theunder/overweaveandthenswitchingthatpatterninthenextrowtotheopposite,until your piece reaches the desired length. At this time, take your tenth strandandfashionitintoaclovehitchtofinishthestrap.
CROSSWEAVING
Cross weaving is a process that can be used with any textured material likebarksorcattailleaves.Crossweavinginvolveshatchingandcanbeusedtomakematerials as large or as small as you need. It can also be shaped into almost anyconfiguration needed. Picture a tic-tac-toe board in which the lines of the boardalternateoverandundereachothertoformaweave.
Crossweaving
WOODLANDLOOM
Youcanmanufacturealarge-scalewoodlandloomasameansforcreatingbigsleepingmatsorcoveringforshelterslikewigwams.Tomakeawoodlandloom, secure one long sapling about waist high on a tree in a T fashion with asimplelashing.Placeseveralstakesinthegroundawayfrombutdirectlyinfrontof this crossbar. These stakes are your looming poles and should be lined upparallel to the tree. The longer the project, the farther the stakes should beplaced.Thewidthofyourprojectwillbedeterminedbythenumberofstakesintherow.Thencreateanotherbarfromasimilar-sizedsaplingastheoneyouusedfortheT.Younowhavethecomponentsofyourloom.Youwillthenalternatethe warps for the weave with strong cordage. Alternate so that the first warp isfixedtothesaplingyousecuredtothetree.Thenextwarpissecuredtoastake.Thenextwarpissecuredtothesaplingonthetree.Theoneafterthatissecuredto the next stake in the line. Continue setting up the warps in this pattern untilyou reach the final stake. Use the crossbar as your heddle. Once the warps arecomplete you will be able to raise and lower the heddle to place wefts ofmaterial in the loom, alternating over and under them. Use another sapling as abeatersticktotightentheweftsasyougo.Thisoperationworksbestwithmorethanoneperson.
Woodlandloom
TABLETWEAVING
Tablet weaving, like diagonal finger weaving, is used to make straps that arestrong but not too wide. In tablet weaving, however, you will not bemanipulating the individual components of your project as much because youwillnotbeusingyourfingers.Intabletweaving,cards,orflatpiecesintowhichholeshavebeendrilled,operateastheshed.
To begin, you will need to create an even number of square cards that areabout 31⁄4" on all sides. For this you can use wood, cardboard, plastic, or anyothermaterialthatisfairlystiff.Drill4holes,oneineachcorner,ineachofyourcards. These cards will act as the heddle, and one thread will pass through eachoftheholestocreatethewarps.Soifyouhave12cards,youwillhave48warps.
Theloomcanbeanytwopointssuchassticks,forexample,towhichyoucanattachyourthreads.Whenyoubeginweaving,youcaneitherholdtheendoftheloom that is nearest to the cards or attach it to your belt. The far end can besecured by a slipknot to a stationary object like a tree. Once you determine thenumberofwarps,itistimetocutyourstring.Takethenumberofwarpsandcuthalf that many strings. If you want 48 warps, cut 24 strings. Fold each string inhalfandsecuretothenearendofyourloomwithalark’sheadknot.Onceallthestringsareattached,youcannowthreadeachthroughtheholesinyourcards.
Once the warps are established you will need a shuttle to pass the weftthroughthem.Anetneedlewillworkperfectly,oranyneedlethathasaneyebigenoughtoholdyourcordage.Tobeginweaving,passtheshuttlethroughtheshed,whichisthegapbetweenthetopholesinyourcardsandthebottomholes.Onceyoureachtheendoftheline,turnyourcardsaquarterturnclockwise.
Nowpasstheweftthroughtheshedoncemoreand,onceyoureachtheendoftheline,turnyourcardsanotherquarterturnclockwise.Repeatthesestepsuntilyoureachthedesiredlength.Tofinishthepiece,simplytieoffandbraidtheremaininglengthofstrands.
Tabletweaving
ASIMPLEPEGLOOM
Simple peg looms are useful because they can be adjusted to work withmaterialsofallsizestomakeproductsofalldimensions.Forthesakeofourinstructions,assumeweareusingwoolyarntomakeascarf.Whenweavingwithapegloom,thestringthreadedthrougheachpegisthewarp.Theyarnwrappedaroundeachpegistheweft.
CONSTRUCTINGAPEGLOOM
Tobuildapegloomyouwillneedthefollowingmaterials:
1pieceofwood:2"×4"andabout1'–2'long
8dowelrodsabout1"×6"–8"Adrill
Drill a series of holes into your 2" × 4" into which each of your dowel rodswill sit. These rods are your pegs for the loom. Drill a hole at the base of eachpegthroughwhichyouwillthreadthewarpstrings.Theseholesshouldbehighenough that when the pegs are placed in the holes on the 2" × 4" you can seethemabovetheedge.
SETTING UPTHEPEG LOOM
Determinehowlongyouwantyourfinalproducttobeandusedoubletheamountofcordage.Nowthreadonepieceofyarnthrougheachpeg.Iuseasmall wire hook to help pull the string though the peg holes. Pull the yarnthrough until both sides of the yarn hang evenly from the peg hole. Thesehangingyarnswilloperateasthewarp.
Now that your peg loom is set up, it is time to begin weaving. Pull the tailfromyourballofyarn(orwhatevermaterialyouareusing)andtieittoyourfirstpeg. Use an overhand knot that is secure and will not come undone. Pass theyarnbehindthesecondpeg,infrontofthethirdpeg,behindthefourthpeg,in
frontofthefifthpeg,behindthesixthpeg.Nowbringyouryarnbacktothefirstpeg by passing it in front of the sixth peg, behind the fifth peg, in front of thefourthpeg,behindthethirdpeg,infrontofthesecondpeg,andinfrontofyourfirstpeg.Nowsendthatyarnbackdownthelineofpegs.Eachrowofwrapsyoumakearoundthepegswillessentiallylockinthepreviousrowofwrapsbecausetheywillwindintheoppositedirection.
Continue passing the weft around the pegs until your stacks of wraps areaboutthree-quartersofthewayupyourpegs.Asyouweave,pushdowntherowsofwrapswithabeaterstickoryourhands.Thisnotonlytightensuptherowsonyourworkbutalsoallowsyoutofitmorerowsonthepegs.
IliketotieaslipknotinthebottomofmyhangingyarnstomakesurethatmyweavingholdstogetherasIunloadthepegs.Pullthepegsoutoftheirholesandslipeachstackofwrapsoffthepegsandslidethemontoyourhangingyarns.Putthe pegs back into the holes and wrap the yarn around them again, alternatingdirections, until they reach about halfway or three-quarters of the way up thepegs.Oncemore,slipthemoffthepegsandslidethemontoyourweft.Continuedoingthisuntilthepiecereachesyourdesiredlength.
INKLELOOM
An inkle loom is a tape loom that can be used to make narrow pieces such asbelts, trim for clothing, haversack straps, and sashes. Constructing the inkleloomischallenging,butoncesetupandthreaded,weavingontheloomisverystraightforwardandsimple.
CONSTRUCTINGANINKLELOOM
Tomakeaninkleloomyouwillneedthefollowingmaterials:
1(30"×1"×4")pieceofwood
3(15"long)piecesof1"×4"wood1pieceofscrapwood15"–20"long1pieceofdowelrodabout32"longWoodglue
Woodscrews:4(1"),8(2")Drill with a #2 Phillips bitSaw
Laythe30"pieceofwooddownonyourworkspace.Spreadsomewoodglueon the flat end of your first 15" piece and place it at 15°–20° angle on the rightflat end of the 30" board. Secure the wood by drilling in a couple of woodscrews.Takethesecond15"boardandplaceitaboutafootawayfromthefirstonthe30"piece,atthesameslightangleintheoppositedirection.Securewithwoodglueandacoupleofscrews.Attachthescrapwoodatthebottomedgeofyour30"piece,perpendiculartothe15"pieces.Thisscrapwillactasthebasetotheinkleloom.
Nextsawyourdowelrodintopegsthatareequallengthsof6".Youwillneed8pegsfortheinkleloom.Drilla½"-deepholeinthebottomofeachpeg(Iuseavisetoholdthepegsteadywhiledrilling)andattach3ofthemtotheflatsideof
eachangled15"pieceofwood.Thefirstpegoneachpieceof15"woodshouldbeattached2"fromthetop,thesecond2"fromthebottom,andthethirdrightinthemiddle—about8"fromthebottom.Toattach,putalittlewoodglueonthebackofeachpegandalsoonthescrewthreadsthemselvesforextrasecurity.
Attachtheseventhpegtothefrontendofthe30"pieceofwoodjustunderthelowestpegonthefirstangled15"board.
Attachthelastpegtothefrontofthethirdpieceof15"wood.UseaC-clamptosecurethispieceofwoodtothe30"boardontheloomwhileyouthreadthepegs.YoucanremovetheC-clamponcethepegsarethreadedandtensionisestablishedbetweentheloomandtheeighthpeg.Thispieceofwoodwillmovebackandforthasyoubeginoperatingtheloom.
THREADINGTHEINKLELOOM
Youwillneedtwosetsofcordagetoweaveonyourinkleloom.Igenerallyuseajutestringandoftentwodifferentcolors,oneforthewarpsandanotherforthe weft, which produces an attractive pattern. Tie the tail of your first set ofcordagetothe15"boardthatholdspeg8.Nowbringyourstringoverthetopofpegs 1 and 2, under peg 3, over peg 4, under peg 5, over peg 6, skip the heddlepeg(7),andunderpeg8.Nowbringyourstringbacktothetopoftheloom,butthistimegounderpeg1andthenagainover2,under3,over4,under5,over6,skip 7, and under 8. Bring the string to the top of the loom once more but thistimestringitover1,over2...andsoforth.Essentiallyyouwillbealternatingyour over/under for only peg 1. The direction of string for the other pegs willalways remain the same. Continue to place the warps this way until you reachyourdesiredprojectwidth.Thisspacebetweenthestringsthatwerepassedoverpeg 1 and those that were passed under peg 1 will create your shed, and yourshuttlewillpassthroughthisspace.
Anetneedleworksverywellasashuttlefortheinkleloom.Tobeginweaving,attachyoursecondsupplyofstringtothewarpstringsinfrontofpeg
Loadyourshuttlewiththestring.Attachwithasimpleclovehitchsoyoucan
easilyundotheknotlater.Forthefirstrow,pushthewarpstringsinfrontofpeg1 down to make the shed. Pass your shuttle through this space. For the secondrow,pushthewarpstringsinfrontofpeg1up,andpassyourshuttlethroughthisspace.Asyoucontinuewiththispattern,useyourbeatersticktopushdowneachweftonthewarpsasyouloom.
Inkleloom
ROTATINGTHEPIECE
After you have been weaving for a while and the weft is about an inch awayfrom the heddle, it is time to rotate your piece. Undo the clove hitch that youusedtoattachthewefttotheloomandtieitaroundthewarpstrings,securingitwithatightoverhandknot.Nowthatyoursecondcordageisfreefromtheloom,pulltheworkawayfromyousothatitismovingbackwardoverthebaseoftheloom and push the heddle strings up. Keep pulling the work backward andpushing the heddle strings up until the woven piece is winding under the loomandthewarpinfrontofyouisclearandreadytoreceivetheweft.
WAISTLOOMS
Waist looms are one of the easiest ways to create long pieces of strapping suchas tumplines if you do not have a full-sized inkle loom at your disposal. Whatmakes the waist loom an appealing option is that you can weave projects ofunlimited length. The weaver uses himself as the base of the loom with a stickand a waist strap or two metal rings. The warps are separated by a warp loop,andthentheheddlestringsareattachedtoafloatingstick.Thewarpscanthenbemanipulated by lifting the warp or heddle string to open a shed. The weft iswovenintotheshedwithashuttleofyourchoosing.Useanothersticktorollupthecompletedproductastheweavingprogresses.
NETSANDNETMAKING
If you plan to spend time in an area with waterways, net making will prove tobeoneofthemostvaluableskillsyouwilleverlearn.Youcanmakenetsofanyshape,size,ordimensiontofityourneeds.Agoodgillnet(orstopnet,astheyaresometimescalled)isareliablesourceoffood.Netsarewonderfultohaveonhand because they can also be multipurposed to cover and haul cargo orincorporatedinlandtrapswhencapturinglivefood.
GILLNETS
Buildingagillnettakesalittleeffortbutisaninvaluableskillforlong-termsustainabilityinthewilderness.Thesenetscanbeplacedinacreektocatchfishorsmallmammals.Fornetbuildingyouwillneedthefollowing:
Largequantityofcordagewithathindiameter(Iprefer#6bankline)Smallamountofathickcordage(like#36bankline)
Netneedle(thesecanbehandmadewithpineorcedarbutcommercialversionsarealsoavailableinplastic)
Meshgaugethatisthesamewidthasyournetneedle
LOADINGTHENETNEEDLE
Firsttieaclovehitchintoyourthincordageandslipitoverthepointinyournetneedle.Flipthenetneedletotheback,bringthecordagedowntotheendofthenetneedle,wrapitaroundthebase,bringitbackupandwrapitaroundthepoint again, flip the net needle to the front, wrap the cordage around the base,back up around the center point, flip the needle to the back, and so forth untilyourcordageisloadedaboutthree-quartersofthewayupthepointinyournetneedle.
SETTING UPTHEMESH
Tieyourheadlinetotwostationaryobjectssothatitstretchesoutataheightthat is comfortable for you to begin working. This thicker cordage will act asyourheadline,andyouwillbuildyourmeshbyattachingthecordagefromthenetneedledirectlytothisline.
Pull line from the point of the net needle and attach it to the head line with aclove hitch. You are now ready to secure your thin cordage to your head linewithaseriesofknots.Usingameshgaugeensuresthateveryspaceinyourmeshis the same width. Remember, the size of the spaces in your mesh determinewhat you will catch. If your spaces are 2" wide, anything that is smaller than 2"willbeabletoescape.
Bringyournetneedlelineupatanangleandwrapitbehindandovertheheadlineandmeshgauge.Nowbringthenetneedlelineupagain,butthistimewrapit behind and over only the head line and make a knot around the loop you justmade.Movelikethis,overthemeshgaugeandheadline,andthenoverjusttheheadlineandaroundyourloop,untilyouhave15knotsinyourheadline.
OPERATINGTHENETNEEDLE
Now that the cord from your net needle is secured to the bankline you willstartformingthemesh.Beginwhereyourneedleispositionedattheright-handside of your knots and work your way back to the first clove hitch. Hold yourmesh gauge below the 15 loops you created with your first set of knots. Bringyournetneedlecordbehindthemeshgaugeandthroughthefirstloop.Pullthelinethewholewaythroughandtightenitagainstthatmeshgauge.Thenbringyourlinebackupandaroundthebackofyourlooptomakeaknot.Workthiswaythroughalltheloopsuntilyougetbacktoyourfirstclovehitch.Holdthemesh gauge against your second set of loops and work your way to the end oftheline,continuingtoaddtotheloopsuntilyoureachyourdesiredlength.
FUNNELNETS
Funnelnetsaredesignedtobeplacedwiththeopeningontheupstreamsideof the stream. They can then be pegged in place, and you can create a furtherfunnelwithnaturaldebrisorbaitthemforlargeranimalsliketurtles.Afunnelnetisconstructedlikeagillnet,exceptfortheheadrope.Here,circleandlashanatural material like a green branch as a hoop at the head of your funnel. Youcan add additional hoops to the inside after the net is completed if you areworking with a very long product. In this trap the fish will swim in but cannotturnaroundinthebackofthefunnel.
TUMPLINES
Tumplines, sometimes called burden straps, have been used for hundreds ofyears. Many cultures to this day still use a tumpline so that people can carryheavy loads on their backs, burdens that may be too large or cumbersome fornormal pack straps. The tumpline is a strap that extends around the load itselfandiswornonthecrownofthehead.Thewearerslightlybendsatthewaistsothat the weight is actually carried down the spine of the back and no tension isplacedontheneckorshouldermuscles.Tumplinescanbemadefromcordage,rope,orstrappingandaresometimeshandwovenandornatelydecorated.Mostmeasureabout6'–12'inlengthandhaveanapproximate2'areainthecenterthatis wider than the rest of the strap. Some even have decorative split tails at theendthathangfor2'–3'.
TIPSANDTRICKS
Reverse-wrap,two-plycordagecanbemadefromanexistingmaterialsuchasabanklinetoincreasetensilestrengthorwithnaturalfiberslikebarkstwistedtogether.
Afisherman’sknotisthebestforjoininganycordageinanettingorweavingproject.
Aseparatetool,calledabeaterstick,canbemadetoessentiallypacktheweftswhileweavingandwillincreasethedurabilityandoverallqualityofthefinishedproduct.
Ifyouplantocarvetoolslikeneedlesandshuttlesfromnaturalmaterials,itpaystousedrywoodsasagreenwoodwillusuallycrackwhencarvedthin.
Chapter7
TRAPPING
“Thereisbutonewaytolearntodoathingandthatistodoit.”
—DANIELCARTERBEARD,THEFIELDANDFORESTHANDYBOOK
The topic of primitive trapping could fill an entire volume of its own, but I willcoverjustthemostimportantinformationyouneedtobecomeaneffective,self-reliant trapper. In the old days, trappers used a combination of steel andprimitive traps that were built using readily available materials. This wouldensure good numbers of fur were taken without having to carry a hundred ormore traps to the line. In an extended wilderness stay it is absolutely necessarytocarrysteeltraps,butyoumustalsohaveadirectknowledgeofwhatittakestosuccessfullyuseprimitivetrappingmethods.Metaltrapsdidnotbecomepopularuntil the mid-1700s. Before then, many animals were caught using methodstaught in the forests of Europe and in the United States by Native Americanmentors. When considering trapping as a means for survival, you are lessconcerned with specific species that provide fur and are instead focused onlooking for edible meat sources. In order to be successful a trapper you need tofirst understand the progression of lower-food-chain resources (which animalsotheranimalseat)tolarger,moretrap-worthyanimals.Youneedtobeclearabout which animal you are hunting and how to identify signs of that animalwhensettingyourtraps.Youshouldhaveagoodworkingknowledgeoftrapsforthreemainfoodsources:mammals,fish,andfowl.
ANIMALBEHAVIOR
Effectivetrappingrequiressomebasicknowledgeofanimalbehavioralpatterns.Youneedtounderstand:
What they eatWhere they liveWheretheytravel
Animals are predictable. They need the same things we do: a comfortableplace to sleep, water, and food. Outside of satisfying basic needs, their solepurpose in life is reproduction of their species. Animals are most relaxed whensleeping,followedbytravelingtoandfromafeedingorwateringarea.Theyaremost wary and cautious when actually feeding or watering. Travel routes areexcellentplacestosettrapsbecauseanimalsareopportunisticinnatureandcanoftenbeluredwithbait.Rememberthatanimalsusuallytravelthesameroutes,and this makes it easy to learn their patterns. Their tendency to operate inpatterns also makes it easy for them to recognize when something has changedin their direct environment. While scent or human odor is nothing new to ananimal,achangesuchasatrapsetintheareamaytakeacoupleofpassesbeforeit overwhelms their curiosity. Be prepared to wait it out and try not to getanxious when a trap has not been visited or tampered with 48–72 hours afterbeingset.
Ananimal’sdietisanotherimportantfactorintrappingbecauseabaitedtrapisahundredtimesmorelikelytocatchananimalthanacuriosity-typesetthatisnotbaited.Snaresintrailscanbeeffectivebutpresentsomechallengesthatwillbecoveredlater.
ANIMALSIGN
Animalsignisthekeytoeliminatingguessworkwhensettingyourtraps.Onlytrap where there is sign. Sign is anything the animal leaves as a trace thatindicatesitmayhavepassedthroughthearea.Thereareseventypesofsignyouneed to know that will help you identify things like species, eating habits, andpopulationnumbers:
Tracks:Examiningtracksistheeasiestwaytoidentifythespecies.Thiscanalsohelpdeterminepopulationnumbers,frequencyoftravelinthatarea,andevenpreferredfoodincaseswhereyoucantellthatoneanimalhasbeentrailinganother.
Scat:Scatleftwhenananimaldefecatescanalsohelpyouidentifyspeciesaswellaswhatfoodsourcetheanimaliscurrentlyforaging.
Slough:Sloughissomethingfromtheanimal’sbodyleftbehindafteritis gone. Examples include a strand of hair on a fence wire, a featherdroppedwhilepreening,orshedsnakeskin.
Remains: The dead body of an animal will not only provide possibleresourcessuchasbaitandattractantsforothertraps,butitalsomaygivesomeideaofwhatotheranimalsareinthearea.
Refuse: Refuse is the animal’s garbage, which will help identify itsspeciesanditstravelroutes.Forinstance,asquirrelmidden,orrefuseheap,isitsfavoritespotandwillbelitteredwithshellsfromthenutsithasbeeneating.Abeaverormuskratleavesbehindchewedtreesandbranches.
Dens:Adenisananimal’shome.Itcanbeaholeintheground,inabank,orinthehollowofatree.Thetypeofdenisoftenasureindicatorofthespecies.Youcanusuallysettrapsattheentranceorexit.
Odor: Odor is the trickiest sign to detect, but cat urine has a distinctsmell,asdoesrottenmeatfromacarnivoredenwhereafoxmightlive.
Obviouslyyou’llsmellaskunkinthearea,butothersubtlesmellscanbeidentifiedaswell.
LOWER-FOOD-CHAINRESOURCES
Animalsatthelowerendofthefoodchainarewhateveryotheranimalseeksforfood.Aroundthewater’sedgethisgroupincludesfrogs,crayfish,fish,aswellasmussels and snails. Seeking these food items for yourself and then delegating aportionofthemtothetrapsyoubuildwillenableyoutocatchmoresizablepreyitems. If you are in an area that contains no water sources, you will need tomicrotrapinordertosecureanimalsyoucanuseasbait:forinstancemice,rats,andchipmunks.Youcanalsochoosetocombinethesetechniques.Someoftheseresources,likelargerfishandturtles,arefullmealsinthemselves.
WATER-TYPETRAPS
Netmakingisadifficultskillthatcantakealongtimetomaster,buttherearesomenetsthatareeasytofashionandworkwell.Rememberthatanynetwillonlycatchpreythatcannotexittheholesyouhavecreated,somanynetsmustbetailoredtotheintendedfishoranimal.
DIPNETS
Dipnetsareusuallyattachedtoahoopedpolewithwhichyoucanreachintothe water and lift the target out while it is trapped. This pole can be fashionedfrom a green fork that is wrapped against itself to form the loop. The net isattacheddirectlytothishoopwhilethetoolismanufactured.
Dipnet
GILLORSTOPNETS
Gillnetsmustbelongenoughtostretchfromonesideofacreekorsmallriver to the other and deep enough to stretch from the top of the water to thebottom.Thistypeofnetisusuallyweightedwithstonesatthebottomandhassometypeofflotationdeviceatthetop.
Gillnet
Youcandrivefishintoagillnetbywalkingdownstreamandchasingthemintoit.Whentheytrytoleavethenet,theirgillspassthroughtheholesbuttheirbodiescannot.Youcanseewhyitiscriticaltoknowtheaveragesizeofthefishyouarehuntinginordertomakeaneffectivenet.
SEINE NETS
Aseinenetislargewithverysmallholes.Itcanbewalkedthroughadeeperwater source and often has a long stick on each end that can be used tomanipulatesmallerfishtoaplaceattheedgeofthewaterwhereyoucangrabit.
FUNNELNETS
Funnelnetsresembledipnetsinmanywaysandcanbemadewithasmalldiameter and elongated for fish-type traps, or they can be made with a largediameterandlaidflattotrapanimalswhenthenetislifted.
Funnelnet
FENCES
Fencesareusedtoguidefishtoacertainlocationinthewateroranimalssuchas turtles to a location on the water’s edge. They can be built from any naturalmaterialincludingstones,sticks,orevenlogs.Fencingcalledaweircanbeusedtotrapfishinasmallerareawheretheycanbehuntedwithaboworgig.
Fencing
FUNNELS
Funnelsaretrapswovenfromnaturalmaterialsandemploytwoconesthatfittogether so that fish can swim in but cannot leave. By simply tying the funnelstogether, both facing the same direction, you make the trap easier to open. Thesameconceptwillworkwitha2-literbottle;cutoffthetopandandturnittotheinside to trap smaller bait fish. This type of net is woven like a basket, and theouter piece has a hole in the bottom from which fish can swim into the largerconewheretheywillgettrapped.
LINES WITHL7TRIGGERS
L7 triggers are simple reverse notches that form a quick-release system.Employing L7 triggers in fishing involves using line and a trap together toactually set the hook after the animal runs with the bait. An L7 trigger iscombinedwithaspring-poledevice,allowingthelinetobehand-castoffthebankwithabaitedhook.WhenthefishorturtlerunswiththebaititdislodgestheL7trigger,whichspringsthepoleandimmediatelyjerksthelinetosetorlodgethehookinthethroatoftheprey.
TYPESOFPRIMITIVETRAPS
Mostprimitivetrapsworklikeasimplemachine.Infact,youwillusesomeofthefivemachinesdiscussedinChapter3forconstructingthem.Understandingyourtoolswillallowyoutoimprovisevarietiesoftrapsthatadapttoconditionsandavailablegame.Deadfalltrapswillalwaysinvolvealeverandfulcrum.
Thesebeartheweightofthedeadfalldeviceandarereleasedbyatriggerthatmanytimesdoublesasabaitstick.
Primitivetrapsaredesignedtoaccomplishatleastoneofthreethings:strangle, mangle, or dangle. Many of them use the common releases ortriggeringsystems.
LEANINGDEADFALLS
Tosetaleaningdeadfalltrap,positionaheavyobjectsothatoneendleansontheground,withtheweightoftheleaningobjectheldupbyatriggerdevice.
Thisdevicereleasestheweightofthedeadfalldevice.
Leaningdeadfall
SUSPENDEDDEADFALLS
Suspendeddeadfalltrapsinvolveasuspendeddeadfallingdeviceabovethegroundthatdropsuponrelease.Thesecanbecombinedwithspikesorspearpointsforlargergame.
Suspendeddeadfalltrap
BUSHCRAFTTIP
Deadfalls are the most misrepresented trap, often poorly illustratedinbooksandincorrectlytaughtbyinstructors.Deadfallingtrapsarenot always intended to instantly kill prey; some of the smallerdeadfalls used for microtrapping rodent species will suffocate theanimalinstead.Confusionoverhowtheanimalactuallydiesispartoftheproblem.Manypeoplewillraiseadeadfalllikearockorlogatahighangle,thinkingthiswillhelpthemachievecrushingpower.
Thetruthis,thehighertheangleofthedeadfall,thegreaterthechancetheanimalwillescapethetrapbeforetheobjectmakescontact.
There are two simple rules of thumb when employing leaningdeadfall devices: The first is that deadfalls should be five timesheavierthantheweightoftheanimaltobetrapped,andthesecond
WINDLASSMACHINES(KLEPTSY)
The windlass is used on this trap as a winding device. This creates spring-loaded tension to hold a killing device in place by a bait stick. When the baitstickisremoved,itletsthewindlassrelease,swingingthedeviceundertensiontokillthetargetprey.
Thesetrapsinvolveawindlassmachinethatdeliversakillingblowordeploysaspikeorspeartoimpaletheanimaluponreleaseofthetrigger.
FREE-HANGINGSNARES
Unpoweredsnaresrelystrictlyontheanimal’sstrugglestotightenandholditin the trap. These are often the least effective traps when manufactured in aprimitive fashion; however, cable snares in this configuration can be veryeffective.
POWEREDSNARES
Snares involving a spring-loaded engine or a counterweight device can bevery effective depending on the setup. They just need to lift the animal off theground using noncable snares. Remember, an animal will do whatever it can toescape if it is alive, which includes chewing. If the animal is on the ground, ithas lots of opportunities to chew its way out of the trap. Most snares will notcatchtheanimalaroundtheneck;moreoftenthannot,thesnarewillencircletheanimal’s body. Snare loops need to be set at a targeted diameter to ensure apropercatch.Asnaresetabitlargerthananopossum’sheadisnotlikelyto
catchacoyote.Again,thisiswhyit’simportanttopayattentiontoanimalsignonthetrailsothatyouknowyouaresettingyourtrapsfortherightanimals.
TRAPTRIGGERS
Triggersinvolvethetotalmachineanditsoperationalsetup.Followingareillustrationsofeachtypeoftriggerandhowtoemploythemachineintoatrapsystem.
Figure-4triggerandfigure-4triggerreversed(modified)
Piutetrigger
Splittrigger
Promontorypeg
TheL7triggerisnamedfortheLcutoutfromthetriggerandthe7cutintothestake.Thesecutscreateasortofpuzzle-pieceeffect.Eachpieceisheldinplacebyfrictionfromaspringdevicethatisusedtopowerthetrap.
TRAPPINGBIRDS
All North American birds are edible and plentiful, which makes them a goodchoiceforyourtableinalong-termouting.Forcatchingbirds,threetrapsworkthebest:multiplegroundsnares,Ojibwabirdtraps,andcage-styletraps.
MULTIPLEGROUNDSNARES
Asimplestakeinthegroundsurroundedbyasmallpileofgrounddebriscanworkwithagroupofsmall-diametersnarestocreateanetworkofgroundsnares.If you bait them with something on which the birds are feeding, such as smallseeds,itisoneofthemosteffectivetrapsforsmallbirds.Thebiggestchallengestothissetupare:
Theymustbesmall—snaresshouldbemadefromveryfineline.
Youneedalotofthem—atleast25snareswith2"–3"overlappingloopsfora2'squarearea.
Multiplegroundsnares
OJIBWABIRDTRAP
TheOjibwatrapusesalandingperchtolurethebird.Theweightofthebirdontheperchactivatesthesnare,whichinturntrapsthebirdbyitsfeet.Youfirst
need a pole tall enough for a bird to want to land on, but not so tall that youcannotretrievethebirdafteritistrapped.Sharpenthepoleintoapointonbothends. Sharpening will make it easy to drive one end into the ground and willensurethatthebirdisnottemptedtolandontheotherendinsteadoflandingonthetrigger.
Drillorcarveaholeintothetopofyourpole,about2"fromthepoint.Placeasecond stick, about 4" long, into the hole. The diameter of this stick should bejust a little bit less than the hole so that the stick rests in the hole rather thanbeing tightly screwed into it. This stick will be the perch. Select a piece of thincordage about half the length of your pole; this is the snare. It is important thatthis cord is not too long or else your counterweight will rest on the groundinsteadofpullingtightlywhenthesnareisactivated.Tieastopknotaboutone-third of the way into your cord. Use a clove hitch to create a loop in the othersideoftheknotonyourcordage(thelongerside).Stringthecordagethroughthehole on your pole. Tie a rock that’s about the size of the bird you intend to trapon the end opposite of the loop. Place your perch stick into the hole where youhave strung the snare. Carefully lay the loop of your snare on the perch. Thisperchisthetriggerstick,andwhenthebirdlandsonitthetrapwilldroptherockand activate the snare. The bird will instinctively grab the stick when it lands,whichwillensurethatitslegsareinsidetheloopofyouractivatedsnare.Thebigtrick to this setup is making sure that the closed snare is drawn close to theupright pole so that when the bird is trapped it is held tight and close in anupside-downposition.
Ojibwatrap
CAGE-STYLETRAPS
Before building a cage-style trap, you will need to prepare a series of sticksthat are similar in diameter but get progressively shorter in length in order tobuild a cage similar to a pyramid. Make sure the sticks you select are fairlystraightandabout½"indiameter.Cut2sticksforeachofthefollowinglengths:12",11",10",9",8",7",6",and5".Finally,cut6sticksabout4"long.
Takethe12"sticksandplacethemparalleltoeachother,aboutafootapart.
Attach a length of cord between the two sticks about 1" from their top ends.Attach a length of cord, equal to the first, between the 2 sticks about 1" fromtheirbottomends.FliponeofthesticksoversothatthecordscrosseachothertoformanX.
Push the 11" sticks under the cord, perpendicular to the 12" sticks, until theyfeeltightagainstthecord.Thefoursticksshouldnowformasquare.Nowpushthe 10" sticks under the cord and over the 12" sticks until they feel tight. Pushthe9"sticksunderthecordandoverthe11"sticksuntiltheyfeeltight.Continueaddingsticksunderthecord,alternatingsideslikealogcabinuntilyougettothe4"sticks.Linethesesticksinarownexttoeachothertocreateasecureroofonyour cage. Double-check that there are no gaps on the roof too large throughwhich a bird might escape. If you do see gaps, just fill them in with more 4"sticks.
Smalltrippinglinesworkwellwhenconnectedtoasteporbreak-awaytriggerso that birds set off the trap as they are attempting to hop or duck the strings inordertoaccesstheseedbaitinthecenterofthetrap.Intherightconditions,thistypeoftrapcancatchuptotenbirdsanhour.
HUNTING
Hunting has been used since the beginning of time to secure meat to feedfamilies. It is an art form that in recent times has been spoiled by technology.These days we put too much emphasis on the fastest-shooting bow and thelongest-rangerifleswithexpensiveoptics.It’shardtoimaginethatnoteven200years ago Native Americans were still hunting buffalo by riding in fields onhorseback and shooting them with arrows! Evolving and adapting to ourenvironment is at the core of survival, so there are many benefits to theimprovements in hunting practices. Even so, we have also lost many valuableskills such as stalking, closing distance, and tracking prey. These skillsdemonstratetrueself-reliance.InAfricatherearetribestothisdaythatrunandtrack large game animals until the beasts drop from exhaustion and aredispatchedbyspear.Tomanyofusthiswouldseeminhumaneandunnecessary,but to our ancestors it was part of life. True hunting—spotting and stalking onthe ground with primitive or improvised weapons—is by far the most difficultway to secure meat, but it can also guarantee food consistently while on themove.
LARGEGAMEVERSUSSMALLGAME
The question of whether to hunt large game such as deer or small game likerabbitdependsonthesituation.Logistically,largegametakeslargeamountsoftime and energy both to process and to preserve. Small game can be preparedeasilyandeatenonthespotifnecessary.Largegameisamuchbetteroptionforlong-term situations that involve a base camp with an operation for properpreserving.
Theotherissuethatmustbeconsideredisthedangersinvolvedinhuntinganylarge game. For example, you’re much less likely to be injured by a woundedsquirrelthanbyawoundedhog!Largegame,evendeer,canbedangerousifyoumustdispatchthemupclose.Anotherconsiderationisthesheernumbersof
available animals. For each deer in a given area there may be ten rabbits, tensquirrels,andtwentychipmunks.Thinkaboutthenumberofbirdsyouseeflyingaway when you walk through the woods compared to deer or other large gameyouseefleeing.
THROWINGSTICKS
Manycultureseventothisdayusethrowingsticksofdifferingconfigurationsforsecuringsmallmammalsandbirds.Thethrowingstickisoneoftheeasiestimprovisedweaponstocreateanduseeffectively,evenifyoudonothavealotofpractice.Thebiggestconvenienceofthethrowingstick,orrabbitstickasitissometimescalled,isthatitcanbecarriedonyourbeltsothatitisoutofthewayand your hands are free until the second you need it. The reason that thethrowing stick is so effective is that it rotates as you throw it so that evenmarginal shots can be successful. Think about how much easier it is to hit asquirrelwithashotguncomparedtoarifle.Itisallaboutsurfacearea!
Throwing sticks are generally about the length of your arm from wrist toshoulderandabout2"indiameter.Theycanbesomewhatbentortheycanbestraight.Thethrowingstickkillsbyinflictingbluntforcetrauma,soitshouldalwaysbemadeofhardwood.
THROWINGSTARS
Thisweaponisafurtherinnovationtothethrowingstick.Thethrowingstaruses two straight sticks with points on both ends that are notched and lashedtogethertoformanXorcrossofsorts.Thisweaponreliesonsurfaceareaandrotation and can be quite effective even on medium-sized animals such asraccoons.Themaindrawbacktothethrowingstaristhatitiscumbersomeandcannoteasilybestored,requiringyoutoholditwhileyouwalk.
SPEARSANDGIGS
Spears and gigs, easily improvised from natural material, work well asweapons.Speartipscanbemadebyfire-hardeningwoodorfashioningstoneor
pieces of glass into sharp points. Many knives now are designed to be used asspearpointsforemergencies.Ofcourse,thenyouaregivingupyourknifetotieittotheendofapole,sothisisnotalwaysthebestidea.Commercialversionsofgigs are available, but they can be easily fashioned from wood. Gigs work wellforfishingandunderwateruse.
SLINGS
You can use any fabric, such as a bandanna or cordage, to make a sling thatwillallowyoutolaunchasinglestoneatyourprey.Thisisafrustratingweaponto master due to the limitations of working with one piece of ammunition at atime. It takes a lot of practice. The biggest advantage of using a sling is theabundanceofammunitionbecauseanysemiroundrockyoucanfindwillwork.
SLINGSHOTS
The slingshot, in my opinion, is one of the most inexpensive and practicalsurvivaltoolsforshort-termself-reliance.Youcanpurchasecommercialfoldingslingshotsormakeoneyourselfverycheaply,andammunitionisavailablealonganycreekbank.Slingshotsarenotdifficulttomasterandfiteasilyintoyourdaypack.Tokeepthingslight,youcanevenjustcarrythebandsandimprovisetheframewithnaturalmaterialsyoufindonthetrail.
TIPSANDTRICKS
Useyourthrowingstickasamultipurposetool.Ifyousharpenandfireoneend,itcanbeusedasadiggingstickandbaton.
Don’toverlookthefactthatanimalremainscanprovidetoolsneededinanemergencysituation.
Whensettingdeadfalltraps,rememberthekillingdeviceshouldbefivetimesheavierthantheintendedprey.
Oneanimalwillalwaysprovidebaitorluretotrapothers;neverwastetheglandsandgutsofanyanimal.
Most animals are easily attracted to a bait not common to the area. Forexample,ifblack-orblue-coloredberriesarecommoninonearea,baitabirdtrapwithredberriesifyoucanfindthem.Ifhickoryisthehardwoodinanareayouplantotrapsquirrels,baittrapswithwalnutsinstead.
Chapter8
PRESERVINGFOODSOURCES
“Themoresurvivalskillsanindividualhasthathavebeenpracticedphysicallyandotherwise,thebetteroddstheyhaveforthoseskillscomingtotheforefrontduringastressfulemergency.”
—CODYLUNDIN,98.6DEGREES:THEARTOFKEEPINGYOURASSALIVE!
The eastern woodlands provide many sources of food to keep you in goodsupply during your stay in the wilderness. As you consider harvesting theseresources, it is important to also think of what can be preserved. Humans havebeen preserving food since time immemorial, from cooking a large quantity ofmeatinordertomakeitlastforafewdayslongertoburyingitinsnowtokeepitfresh.Thereareavarietyofwaystokeepmeatandprocessplantfoodsourcestoextendtheiruse.
FLOURSANDMEALS
Theseplant-basedflourscanbeusedinrecipes,eatenalone,oraddedtoanothergrain-basedmeal.Althoughplant-basedfloursarenottechnicallycategorizedaspreserved food, grinding things like acorns is a way of repurposing yourresourcesandextendingtheirlife.
ACORNFLOUR
Acornflourwasastaplefooditemformanynativepeoplesthroughouthistoryandacornsremainamajorsourceoffoodforforestanimalstoday.Itsversatilitymakesitoneoftheeasternwoodlands’bestplant-basedfoodresources.Itendtoseekoutwhiteoakacornsbecausetheyhavefewertanninsandtastelessbitter.
Tanninswithintheacorncangiveitaveryastringenttaste.Itisimportantthatacornsareprocessedcorrectlysotheyhaveagentlerflavor.
Toprocess,youmustfirstremovetheshells.Crushtheacornswitharockoran axe. Then place the crushed acorns in a bowl of water; the shells will floatandthemeatwillsink.Tosstheshells.Youwanttoprocessthemeatdowntothesmallest-sized granules possible, so you will leach the meat and remove thetannins.Todothis,dropthemeatoftheacornsinacleanbatchofboilingwaterand let it cook until the water becomes brown. This discoloration is from thetannins. Place the acorn meat in another pot of boiling water and repeat theprocess.Makesurethewaterinthesecondpotisalreadyboiling,becauseiftheacornscomeincontactwithcoldwater,theprocesswillundoitself.Youwilllikely need to move the acorn meat to a new pot of boiling water three or fourtimes before the staining stops. When the majority of the tannins have beenremoved, the water will remain clean. If you don’t have the necessary tools orsetup, acorn meat can be leached in running creek water by placing it in a clothsackandleavingitinthecreekforaweekorso.However,theresultingflavorisnotasreliableaswhatyougetwiththeboilingmethod.
Once the meat is well soaked and clean you can use a stone to grind it into amealforhotcereal,useitasabreadingredient,ordryitoutandstoreitforlateruse.Ifyoudecidetosavetheacornflourforlater,plantosoakitinwaterbeforeyouuseittorehydrateittoitsmushystatus.
CATTAILFLOUR
Cattail makes the best form of starchy flour that nature has to offer, and theprocessofextractingitisnotoverlycomplicated.Firstyouwillneedtocollectagood bucketful of cattail roots. Loosen the soil around the cattail and its rootarea. Then put your hand at the base of the stalk and pull to release the entireplantwiththeroot.Atthispointyoucanditchthestalksandjusthangontotheroots. Once you have washed and thoroughly peeled them, place them in abucket of clean water. Here you will begin to break up the roots, which causesthe flour to separate from the fibers. Continue until you have separated all thefibersintheroots.Asyouwork,theflourwillsettleatthebottomofthebucket.Pourouttheexcesswateranddumptheremainingmushonaflatsurfacewhereitcandryinthesun.Oncetheflouriscompletelydry,storeitinacool,dryplaceawayfrominsects.
CATTAILACORNBREAD
2 cups acorn flour2cupscattailflour
21⁄4teaspoonsdryyeast11⁄2teaspoonssalt1⁄3cupmaplesyrup1⁄2cupwater1cupmilk
2 tablespoons vegetable oil Mix all the ingredients into a dough, shape it intopatties, and throw it on some hot ash from your coals to make ash cakes. Waituntiltheashishotenoughthatitturnswhite.Browntheashcakestoyourliking,about3–4minutesoneachside.
NUTS
Richinprotein,nutsaresomeoftheeasiestplant-basedfoodresourcestoharvest.
PINENUTS
All pine nut seeds are edible, so you do not need to worry about identifyingdifferentspecies.Somehavelargerseedsthanothers,andeventhoughyoucaneat them green, the older ones taste better. The trick is to catch them at just theright time before they drop from the cones. Look for cones that are turningbrownbuthavenotyetopened.Arrangethemaroundafire,andthewarmthwillforce them open so that you can collect the seeds. Just be careful of mildew,whichistheenemyofanyseed.Keepingthemdryisthekey.
HICKORYNUTS
Hickory nuts are delicious and especially valuable because their shellsefficientlylockoutmoistureandinsects,sotheykeepforaverylongtime.Mostfolksdonotcaretofoolwithhickorynutsbecausetheycanbedifficulttoopen.Often after all that work you will end up with small pieces of shell everywhereand only a tiny bit of meat. Let me share a secret with you. You have to takeadvantageoftheinternalstructureofthehullitselftobreakitcleanly.Iprefertouseanaxe,butanyhammeringdevice—evenjustastone—willwork.
Turnthenutsothatitislyingsidewaysandthesharp,raisededgeisontop.(Basically,turnittothespotwhereitwobblesandwillnotstandonitsown.)Thenstriketheseaminaspotaboutone-thirdofthewayfromthebaseofthestem.Ifyoufollowthesesteps,youshouldeasilypopthenutintothreepieceseverytimewithplentyofexposedmeatforthepicking.
WALNUTS
Walnuts,specificallyblackwalnuts,aretotallydifferentfromhickorynuts.Ifpossible,collectthembeforetheyfallfromthetreeandthenstorethemuntil
theyturnblack.Ifyoudocollectanyfromtheground,inspectthemverycloselyfor worm holes. Remove the outer skins from the shells when they turn blackandusethemfordyesandmedicines.Onceyouhavethenutshells,youcanthenbreakthemopenandeatthemeatinside.Walnutsdonotstoreintheshellaswellas hickory nuts. If you decide to save them for future use, dry them beforestoring.Leavethemintheshellandcrackitopenjustbeforeeating.
FRUITS, VEGETABLES, ANDHERBS
Youcanfindafewgoodfruits(raspberries,blackberries,andblueberries)duringcertaintimesoftheyearintheeasternwoodlands.Thenorthernregionstendtohavelargervarieties.Berriesareenergizingtoeatandaddvitaminsandfibertoyourdiet.
FORAGINGFORBERRIES
Takeextracaretomakecertainyoucanidentifyanyberriesbeforeeatingthem.Whenindoubt,donoteat!
Whenlookingforberries,scantheareafromgroundleveltoeyelevel.Lookforlowfruittreesandbushes.Alotofspeciesarecreepers,soscanthegroundvery well. Remember that berry plants are biologically constructed to protectthemselvesfrombirds.Sotheyareoftenhidingundergreeneryorsurroundedwiththorns.Keepacloseeyeoutforpoisonivytoo.
FRUIT
WHERETOLOOK
SEASON
Blueberries
Blueberriesgrowinbushform.Theyflourishinacidicsoil, so you can sometimes find them in dried-upbeaver ponds or near oak trees. They growparticularlywellinsunnymeadows.
Flowersinspring,berriesinsummer.
Elderberries
Moistforestsoilalongtrailsandaroundfields.
Bloom June to July, fruitsappearinlatesummerintofall.
Raspberries
Growinbushes,usuallyfoundinareasthatreceivefullsun.
Blossominspring,fruitinsummer.
Blackberries
Growinsmallpatchesofbramblyvines.Lookinareasneardrainageditchesortrails.
Bloominmidsummer,eatinlatesummer.
Wildcherries
Growrapidlyfromseedsdroppedbybirdssotheyareusuallyfoundascoloniesoftreesinclearings.
Blossomsinspring,fruitsin summer—often holduntilfall.
Cranberries
Growbestinacidicsoilandbogs.
Ripen in the fall andusuallystayonplantthroughwinter.
Strawberries
Growclosetothegroundanywhere.
Blossominspring,fruitinearlysummer.
Mulberries
Edgesoffields,openwoods.
Veryhardy,cansurvivein
extremelycoldtemperatures.
Wildgrapes
Occurthroughouttheeasternwoodlandsinseveralspecies.
Veryhardandcold-weatherresistant.
Autumnolives
Thisspeciesisinvasiveandgrowsinmostlyfieldedges.
It blooms in early fall andbecomes better after thefirstfrost,makingitacold-weatherplant.
FRUITLEATHER
Makingfruitleatheristhebestwaytopreservefruitforlaterconsumptionwhenyou do not have the resources to set up a canning operation. For this simpleprocessyoudonotneedmuchmorethanaskyfullofsun.
Firstmashandgrindthefruitintoapurée.Youcaneasilyremovetheseedsbypicking them out of the mash with your hands. Spread the purée over a flatsurface,likearockorcuttingboardthatisabout1⁄8"thick.Leaveitinthesuntodry for a few hours. You will know the fruit leather is ready by the glossy lookthepuréewillgetwhenitdries.Storeitinacoolplacewhereitwillbesafefrombugs and moisture. Fruit leather will last a couple months at room temperaturebutlongerifitiskeptcool.Youcaneatitasitis,rehydrateittomakedrinks,oruseitasanadditiveforrecipessuchasbreadandcereal.
PLANTSOURCESOFSTORABLEFOODS
Manyplantsprovidestorablefoodresourceslikeseeds,seasonings,orbulbs.Thesefooditemscanbeprocessedanddriedforlateruse.
BULBS
Bulbscanbestoredinacool,dryplaceforawholeseason.Therearesomegreat plants with edible bulbs, such as wild garlic or onion garlic, in thewoodlands.Rampsandleeksalsocontainedibleanddeliciousbulbs.
ROOTSANDTUBERS
Cattailcontainsanedible,starchytuberthatcanbeeatenaswellasstoreddry.
Arrowhead is another water plant with an edible tuber that has high starchcontent.Burdockcontainsalargetaprootsimilartothepotatoandcanbeeasilystored for later use if kept dry. Dandelion root makes a good drink or coffeesubstitute.Youcanevendryitandgrinditdownforlateruseinahotdrink.
Yellownutgrassisanotherediblerootplantnativearoundareasofwaterwherecattailsandarrowheadarefound.
WILD SPICES/HERBS
Mostwildherbscanbeair-driedforlateruse.Youcangrindthesedriedspicesintoflavoringsforfoodandteas.Afewofmyfavoritesaremustardseed,garlicmustard,mint,shepherd’spurse,anddockseeds.
SAPS
Intheearlywintermonths,manytreescanbetappedfortheirsap,butmaplesandbirchesarethebestsourcesintheeasternwoodlands.Thisliquidmakesadelicious drink straight from the tree on a cold morning. It can be furtherrenderedintosyrupbyboilingitdowntoevaporatethewatercontent.
MAPLESYRUP
Maple syrup is made by further rendering the sap so that it becomes a sweet,sticky liquid. Maple syrup can be used to sweeten any food or drink and keepsverywellifstoredproperly.Oncethesapiscollected,pouritintoacookingpotuntilthepotisaboutthree-quartersfull.Boilthesaptoevaporateallofthewatercontent.Thiswilltakeseveralhoursofconstantboiling.Themostdifficultthingabout making maple syrup is knowing exactly when the water has completelyevaporatedandthesyrupitselfhasstartedtoboil.Ifthishappens,theliquidwillactually burn. Keep an eye on the color. The syrup should gradually turn goldandthendarkenuntilitbecomesthemahoganyshadeofmaplesyrup.Oncethesyrup is complete you can strain the liquid to get rid of any particles that mayhave fallen into the concoction during the long boiling process. Pour into glassjars or plastic containers and store in a cool place. It should last in therefrigeratorforaboutsixmonths.
MAPLESUGAR
Maple syrup can be even further processed into a delicious sweetener calledmaple sugar. Bring maple syrup to a boil and skim off the air bubbles as theyrise.Reducetheheatalittleifitstartstoboiloverthesidesofthepot.Whentheair bubbles stop appearing, remove the liquid from the heat and transfer it to awoodenbowl.Stirforatleast5minutestoremoveanyremainingmoistureandthen let it stand until it turns hard. This hard material can be ground into sugarandstoredinacoolplace.
MEAT
Preservingmeat,nomatterwhichmethodyouchoose,isacriticalprocessbecause meat spoils very quickly, especially if you do not have access torefrigeration.Hereareafewwaysofpreservingmeatfromyourhuntingortrappingcampaignsothatitcanbesafelyconsumedlater.
SALTDRYING
Theprocessofdryingmeatinvolvespullingmoisturefromthemeatataslowrate so that the outside of the meat does not dry first. If the outside of the meatdriestooquickly,moisturemightgettrappedinside,whichwillcausethemeattogorancid.Moistureistheenemyinmeatpreservationbecauseitallowsbacteriato grow. With this understanding, two environmental conditions are necessaryforproperlydryingmeat:
Ahumiditylevelofabout30percentorless
Afewstraightdayswithaneventemperaturewherethereislittlefluctuationfromdaytonight
Forthisreason,winterintheeasternwoodlandsisnotagoodtimetoair-drymeat.Becarefulinthespringthattheweatherisnottoohumid.Consideralsothe meat that will be used. Meats containing high concentrations of fat holdmoisture,whichmakesthefatgorancidquickly.Mostmeatwillcontainsomefat, but you will find more in animals that are killed during the winter. Beselective and trim away the fat before drying. It is easier to see the fat in red-meat animals like raccoon. You will have to look very carefully whendistinguishingbetweenfatandmeatinlighteranimalssuchasopossum.
Ifyoudonothavethemeanstocoolthemeatinarefrigerator,youwillneedto salt it immediately after it has been gutted. All of the fatty tissue must beremovedfromthemusclemeatbeforegettingstarted.Thensliceeachpieceof
meat into long, thin strips that are similar in size so that you can achieve evendrying.Prepareaheavysaltsolutionintowhicheachstripwillbedippedbeforehanging.
SaltSolutionforDryingMeatandFish
1gallonwater
20ouncessalt
Stirthesaltintothewateruntildissolved.
Dipthestripsintothesaltsolutionrightbeforehanging.Thissolutionwilladdflavortothemeat,speedupthedrying,andkeepinsectsaway.Suspendthemeatstripsverticallybythethickestend.Attachthemtoalinewithloopsofcordageof a small diameter if possible. Dried meat can then be stored in a breathablebag.Youcaneatitjustasitisorrehydraterightbeforeuse.
SUNDRYING
Sundryingworksbestwithfish,butthemainconceptsarethesameformeat.
Again, evaporating the moisture from the inside layers to the outside isabsolutelycritical.Removetheheadsandgutsandthensplitthefishrightatthespine. Now you should have two pieces, side by side with the skin on top ofeach.Fromhere,cutthefishintoseveralequalchunks.Fishwillgenerallydrymorequicklythanredmeat,butstilldipthestripsintothesaltsolution.Drythefish strips on racks, which you can easily fashion with two tripods and a crossstick.
Theamountoftimeittakestodrythefishdependslargelyonthehumiditylevelintheair.Whenthefishiscompletelydryitshouldcrackwhenyoubendit.Testthedonenessbybendingacornerofthefishafterithasbeendryingontherackforaday.Ifyoudonothearacrack,letitsitonthetripodforanotherhalfdaybeforetestingagain.
JERKY
You can make jerky by adding a good salt solution and some spice to themeat,whichisthendriedoveralow-heatfireofabout120°F.Cutthemeatintolean,thinstrips.Makingjerkyisdifferentfromsaltdryingbecausethegoalistodry the meat with an elevated temperature over a period of time. Hunters usedthis process long ago because it does not necessarily require salt or rubs(although those extras can give it a sensational taste), and it makes storage andtransportsoeasy.Theywouldeatalltheycouldatthekillsiteandthendrytherest, which substantially reduces the weight of the meat. If done properly, apoundofmeatwillreducetoabout4ouncesinweight.Whenfinished,themeatshould crack when bent but not snap in half. It should be dry and not moist orgreasy.
COLDSMOKING
Thecold-smokingprocessissimilartomakingjerkyinthatyouarecuttingmeat into thin strips, salting, and drying with an elevated temperature. Here,meatisdriedatatemperaturethatislowerthanwhatyouuseforjerky—about85°F.Youwantafirewithlotsofsmoketoaddflavor(anddeterbugs).Thismethodtakes12–24hoursinmostcases.
COLDHANGING
Inthewinter,ifthetemperatureslingeraroundfreezingforafewdays,meatcan safely hang to dry. The cold temperatures ensure that bacteria do notdevelop. In this process, the meat does not need to be deboned and cut intostrips,buttheanimalmustbecompletelyguttedandopenedwithacrossstickinthebreastsothatthecarcassstaysopenwhileitdries.
TIPSANDTRICKS
BesuretoITEMizeanyfruitbeforeconsumptionbecausemanyberriesarepoisonous.
Saltcanbeamajorconcernforthelongerterm,butsomeplantscontainenough salt that you can actually extract it by boiling them. Hickory isone tree that will provide salt if the roots are cut and boiled. Once thewaterhascompletelyboiledawaytherewillbeablacksubstanceleftthatwillbesalt.Animalbloodisanotherresourcerichinsaltandmanyothernutrients.Notethatwhenyouextractsaltfromhickoryyouwillactuallyberenderingmineralsalt.Thatmeansittakesalottomakeverylittle.
Manyfruitsandplantsalsoproducenaturaldyes.Raspberrywillmakered,goldenrodisdeepbrown,pokeberriesmakeapurpledye,bloodrootis orange to reddish. Dyes made from berries can be soaked in a hotfixativeofsaltwater,whilemostplantswillrequireavinegarforfixing.
Inks for writing can also easily be made from the same plants as dyes,and the color of the berry will generally indicate the resulting color.PokeberriesaretheclosesttoIndiainkcolor.Tomakeink,maceratetheberries(poisonous)inapanorcontainer.Addenoughwatertocoverthematerial,whichshouldequalabout1cupintotal,andslowlybringtoaboil.Removefromheat,add1teaspoonsalt,andifavailable1teaspoonvinegar, and simmer 15 minutes. Mix well to dilute the ingredients andstraintheliquidintoastoragecontainerorbottlethatcanbesealed.Anylargefeathercanbefashionedintoapen.
Anything that will ferment will eventually turn to vinegar. If you needvinegar as a fixative for something, a simple punch made from wildberriescanbecovereduntilitferments(turnstoalcohol),thenleaveitintheopenairforacoupleweeksanditwillturntovinegar.
Chapter9
HIDEPRESERVATION,TANNING,AND CLOTHINGREPAIR
“Whoevercoinedthesaying‘anounceofpreventionisworthapoundofcure’musthavebeenthinkingaboutsurvival.”
—BRIANEMDIN,SURVIVALSECRETS
If you are hunting and trapping during your time in the wilderness, you mightalso consider using animal hides to manufacture additional resources. Hereyou’lllearnthemethodsforremoving,fleshing,anddryinghidesaswellashowpreservedhidescanbeused.
SMALLHIDES
Smallhidesfromanimalssuchasrabbit,muskrat,andfoxareeasytomanipulateand can be manufactured quickly. They tend to be too thin for most clothingarticlesbutmakesturdysmallbags,pouches,quivers,andmuffs.
CASING
Casingisaprocessofremovingthehidefromthecarcassthatworkswellforsmalleranimals.Tocaseananimal,youremovetheskinfromtheonesideofthecarcasstotheotherinonecontinuouspiece,almostlikeatube.
Casingahide
FLESHINGANDDRYING
Fleshingreferstotheprocessofremovingallthemeatandmembranefromthegutsideofthehide.Casedhidesdryveryefficientlyonafleshingbeam.
Fleshingbeamscanbeeasilyconstructedwithalargelogandahomemade
tripod.Findalogabout8"indiameterandstripoffallofthebark.Usethetripodto elevate one end of the log. This process is essential because any meat left onthe hide will go rancid. If you want to use a hide without hair, to make leatherfor example, then either pull off the hair during the fleshing process or soak thehideinashwaterforacoupleofdaysandthenstripthehair.
Oncethefleshisremoved,youcanfashionasmallstretchertodrythehidecompletely.Stretchersmanufacturedfromwireareavailablecommercially,buttheycanalsobemadefromflexiblesaplings.
LARGEHIDES
Largehidesfromanimalssuchasdeercanbesplitandsewntogetherformoreinvolvedprojectslikeclothingandshelterresources.
SPLITTING
Themosteffectivewaytoremoveahidefromalargecarcassistosplitthehide.Inthisprocessyouhangananimalupsidedownandcutthebellytoopenthe hide with the gut side out. From here you cut across both inside back legsbetweentheanusandventorpenis,andfromthereyoubasicallystripthehidedownoffthecarcasssimilartothewayyouwouldpulloffashirt.
Once all of the flesh is removed, you will need to stretch the large hide on arack.Youcanmakeasquarerackfromsturdysaplings;itshouldbeatleastone-thirdlargerthanthehideyouplantostretchonit.
Useyourknifetomakeholesintheedgesofthehide,about1⁄2"fromtheedgesothatthehidecandrywithouttearing.Useanytypeofcordtolacethroughtheholes and stretch the hide on the stretching rack. Take care to preserve theoriginalshapeofthehideasyoustretchit.
RAWHIDE
Whenthehidehasbeenfleshedanddriedandthehairhasbeenremovedyouwillhaverawhide.Rawhidecanbeusedformanythings.
RAWHIDEPRODUCTS
Rawhideisanamazingresource.Youcangetitwet,formit,andwhenitdriesit will be hard as plastic. It can be used for anything from containers to knifesheaths. Many Native American tribes along the western frontier used rawhideenvelopes or bags known as parfleches to carry things such as dried meats,supplies,andclothing.Rawhidecanbecutintostripswithshearslikeleather.
Youcanevendriveasharpknifeoraxeintoatreestumpanddrawtheleatherthroughthebladetosplititintotwopieces.Thesestripscanbeusedforlashingprojects, twisted into bowstring, or even used for lacing if you slice themnarrowlyenough.
MAKINGLEATHER
From the point of rawhide, you can actually take things a step further into thecraftoftanning.Youwillneedtowettherawhideoncemoresothatitisflexiblebutnotsowetthatyouhavetowringwateroutofit.
BRAINTANNING
Totanananimalhideyouneedtannins,whichyoucangetfromthebrainoftheanimal.Heatsomewaterinapotoverthefirebutbecarefulthatitdoesnotboil. Cut off a little bit of the brain and mix it into the water very well so that itturnsintoapaste.Oncethepasteisready,youwillrubitontothehidewithyourhandslikealotion.Ifyoudecidedtoleavehaironthehide,justmakesurenottoplace this paste on the hair side. Once the paste is thoroughly rubbed into thehide, the entire piece needs to be folded up and kept cool for 24–48 hours. Thetanningwilldoitsjobduringthisrestingperiod.
Afterthiswaitingperioditistimetoroughthehide.Duringthisprocessyouwillsqueegeeanymoistureandmaterialoffthehidesothatitbeginstodry.
Spread the hide out on your stretcher or fleshing beam and use a dull hand-scrapingdevice.Oncethehideisdryitwillneedtobestretchedandbrokenbyhand.Youcantiearopebetweentwotreesanddrapethehideoveritorhangitover a dull wood stake so that the fibers start to break. When the hide iscompletelydryandsoftyouwillhavegarment-grade,brain-tannedleather.
Youwillneedtowaterprooftheleatherorelseitwillgobacktohard-shellifitgetswet.Buildatripodaroundasmallfirethatonlysmolderssothatitcreatesalot of smoke but not very much heat. Drape the hide over the tripod and fire sothat it becomes completely saturated from the smoke and leave it there for acoupleofhours.Thehidewilldarkenduringthistime.Takegreatcarenottoletthehidegettoohotorscorch.
Asyoucansee,makingleatherislabor-intensive,andkeepingmanyhidesinprocessatdifferentstagesmakesthingsgoeasier.Eitherway,alwaysbe
preparedwithsomemanmadefabricsjustincaseyouneedsomethingintheshortterm.
BARKTANNING
Barktanningisaverycomplicatedprocessandisnotverypracticalifyouaretraveling light in the wilderness. I mention it here, however, because a lot ofpeoplebelievethatthisistheonlytruewaytoproducerealleather.ThisveryoldtraditionwasbroughtoverbythecolonistsfromEurope.Themostcomplicatedpart of bark tanning is the time it takes and the size of the containers needed toaccomplishit.
Inthisprocessyouusetanninsfromtreessuchaswalnutandwhiteoaktotanthe hide. Bark liquor is made by boiling large amounts of bark in three largebatches of varying concentrations. The first batch is made very strong and thenpouredintoa15-gallonstoragecontainer.Asecondbatch,alittlebitweakerthanthe first, is poured into another large container. Then a third batch, the weakestyet, is made and poured into a third large container. It takes this much barkliquorforonedeerhide.
Soak the hide in the first batch for a couple of weeks. During the first fewdays you must stir it often and then several times a day after that. The hide isthenstoredinthesecondbatchofbarkliquorfor4weekswiththesamestirringfrequency.Thehideisstoredinthelastbatchforupto12weeks.Winterwillbeover by the time you get this far. At this point you still need to oil the hide, dryit,breakdownthefibers,andwaterproof.Youcanseethatalthoughbarktanningmakesthefinestleather,itisamajorundertaking.
CLOTHINGREPAIRANDREPRODUCTION
When you are out in the wilderness for a long stay there is no question thatclothing may need to be repaired. The main purpose of clothing is to provideprotectionfromtheelementsandenvironment.Damagedclothingcannotdothisjobwellandwilllikelyonlygetfurtherdamagedovertime.InBushcraft101wediscussed the importance of carrying a sail needle and cordage for clothingrepairs. For longer-term outings, however, you will require more substantialclothing repair supplies in your kit. You should carry a couple of needles,multiplethreads,possiblyasmallpairofscissors,andabitoffabricmaterialforpatching.Youneedtothinknotjustaboutrepairsbutalsoconstructionofnewclothingtoreplaceitemsthatcannotberepaired.
Herearetheitemsyoushouldcarry:
SMALLCLOTHINGREPAIRKIT
Three different sail needles of varying dimensionsSeveralfeetofsmalldiameter#6–8banklineorthread
EXTENDEDCLOTHINGREPAIRKIT
Several sail needles in various sizesSeveralglover’sneedlesinvarioussizesLockstitchawlwithspareneedles
SeveraltypesofthreadsfromwaxedlinenstonylonlinesScissors
ShearsforcuttingthickermaterialsStitchingpalm
SmallmalletormaulSpikedawl
Beeswax
Clothtapemeasure
Severalsquarefeetofcanvas,wool,andcotton
REPAIRSTITCHES
Herearesomebasicstitchesthatshouldbeusefulforanyclothingrepairproject.
LOCK STITCH
Alockstitchcanbeusedtoquicklymendholesalongseamsonheavierfabricssuchasleatherandcanvas.Theeasiestwaytomakealockstitchiswithaspecializedtoolcalledalockstitchawl,butitcanbedonemanuallyalso.
Whateverthelengthofthestitchneeded,youwillrequireabouttwicethatlengthof thread. Once the first hole is punched, pull half of the thread to the oppositesideofthefabric.Withtheremaininglengthofthread,makealoopneartheholethrough which you’ve just passed your needle. Now pass the needle along withthe thread through the loop and pull tight. Repeat this process, and whenfinished, all of the lock stitches will be on one side of the fabric. To finish,secure your stitching with a double stitch and then a few stitches in the reversedirection.
RUNNINGSTITCH
Arunningstitchcanalsobeusedtorepairseamsorhemsonthinnerfabricslikecotton.Arunningstitchisasimplein-and-outstitchevenlyspacedinalinegoing through one side and coming back through the other with no lockingthread.Youcanusethisstitchtoconnectmaterialslikesleevestoashirt.
WhipStitch
Awhipstitchisusedforseamsaswellandactuallygoesaroundthefabricfoldinaspiralpattern,rollingthematerialasthestitchlineprogressestocreatea welt. This is a good stitch for connecting two separate pieces as well asfinishing things like tarp edges and jacket seams. It is suitable for very strongmaterial,evenonhidematerials,brain-tannedhides,andmoccasins.
SADDLESTITCH
Asaddlestitchisusedmainlyforheavymaterialssuchasleather.Itinvolvestwo needles, one on each end of the thread or cord, that pass through the samehole in opposite directions to create a locked running stitch. When using thistypeofstitchyouwillwanttouseanonawl-typeneedleandprepunchedholessothatthethreadpassesthroughthefabriceasilywithoutbreaking.
SIMPLECLOTHINGPATTERNS
Herearesomesimplepattersthatyoucanuseforclothingcreationandrepair.
Basicshirtpattern
Centerseammoccasin
Romansandal
TIPSANDTRICKS
Whendryingthehaironcasedhideitisbesttoturnthehidehairsideoutassoonastherawsideisfairlydrybutnotyethard.
Hairremovalwillbeeasierifthehideissoakedinasolutionofwaterandhardwoodashesforafewhours.
Shirtpatternscaneasilybealteredtocreatealargerovergarmentsuchasa blanket shirt. It can then be split down the center with a hood of twotrianglesaddedtomakeacapote.
Moccasinswillwearquicklysousethethickestleatheryouhaveforbottomsandsewanadditionalsolelayertotheoutsideifpossible.
Anyleatherthatisleftfromaprojectshouldbecutintolacingsothatyoualwayshavespareandnothingiswasted.
Chapter10
WOODWORKING
“GivemesixhourstochopdownatreeandIwillspendthefirstfoursharpeningtheaxe.”
—ABRAHAMLINCOLN
Woodworkingisoneofthemostvitalskillsthewoodsmancanpossessbecauseit allows you to harvest from the largest natural resource in your environment.Toourancestors,thewordwoodworkingwasactuallysynonymouswiththeword bushcraft. As long as you have the proper metal tools, skills, and anunderstanding of different types of wood, you can craft virtually anythingneeded to sustain yourself over the long term. In the past, an entire family’slivelihood could depend on the woodcrafting skills needed to create items likeshingles,stakes,besoms,andchairs.Thosethatweren’tusedcouldbetradedforfoodstuffandgroceries.
TOOLS
Followingisadescriptionofsomeofthemostimportantwoodworkingtoolstoincludeinyourkit.
FELLINGAXE
Afellingaxeisalittlebitlargerthantheusualmodel.Atminimum,thisaxehasabouta3-poundheadweightandhasa36"-longhandle.Thisisthebesttoolforharvestinglargerpiecesoflumber.
Axetypes
BROADAXE
The broad axe is the best tool for removing the last bit of material from thefacingsideofalog.Itonlyneedstobesharpenedononesidesothatitcanbeusedlikeachisel.Sizesvary—somebroadaxeshavesmallerheadweightsandshort handles, while others are very large. My suggestion is to carry a smallerbroadaxeandcomplementitwithalargeradze.
ADZE
Adzesareusedforflatteningthesidesoflogsandtruingtheflats.Anadzecanbeusedinplaceofthebroadaxeinsomecasesbecauseitworksonsimilarlogsbutismoreversatile.Acurvedadzecanbeusedformanylarge-scalecarvingtaskssuchashollowingoutlargebasinsormakingdugouts.
Adze
FROE
Afroeisalong,flatbladewithanuprighthandle.Thistoolisusedtosplitlumberalongthegraintocreateflatpiecesofwoodsuchasboardsandshingles.
Froe
DRAWKNIFE
Thedrawknifeisveryhandywhenremovingbarkfromalog,anditcanalsobeusedtofurthershapethewood.
Drawknife
BUCKINGSAW
Alargebuckingorbowsawisusedtobreakdownlongerlogswhencreatingshingles and smaller lumber boards. The bucking is great for breaking downfirewoodaswell.Irecommendthe36"buckingsaw.
Buckingsaw
LOG DOGS
Log dogs are metal-forged U brackets. The sides of the U are right angles,whichmakesthemlooksquareinshape.Theselogdogsareusedtosecurealogsothatitdoesnotrollwhileyouareworkingonit.NotchtwosmallerlogswithVcutsandplacetheworkinglogrightintheircutouts.TheseVcutswillcradlethelog.Thenpoundinthelogdogswithamaulsothatoneendofthedogisintheworkinglogandoneendisinthecradlelogatanangle.
Logdogs
DIMENSIONALLUMBER
Itisoftenmucheasiertoworkwithdimensionallumber.Dimensionallumberiswoodthathasbeencuttospecificsizes—forexample,2"×4"—sothatitcanbe used for building. You can make your own dimensional lumber using simplewoodtoolsandalargeaxe.
PROCESSINGATREETOCREATELUMBER
Once you have selected a log for your project, lay it on the ground in yourworkspace.Tomakesurethelogdoesnotroll,cradleitintwosmallerlogswithlogdogsattachedtoeachend.Nowyouwillneedtohewthelog,orsquareit.
Startbyremovingalineofbarkfromendtoendacrossthefacesothatyouendup with the thickness that you need. Picture the front of the log as the top of astumpwhenyouaresquaringit.Thisgivesyouanideaofhowdeeptomakethatfirst cut. Clear the bark and pop a line, using string wiped with charcoal, fromend to end. This will make your cut line clear and visible. Start by making aseriesofVcutswithyouraxeabout2'apartdownthatcutlineonthefaceofthelog. These V cuts should stretch the entire length of the log. Then remove these2'pieceswithyouraxe.Whenthejobiscompletedyoushouldhavearoughflatsurfaceononesideofthelog.Removethedogsandturnthelogoversothattheother side is facing up and reattach the dogs. You can use an adze to square thesurface. Repeat this process three more times on the log and you will have onepieceofsquaretimber.
Makingdimensionallumber
WORKBENCHES
The original workbench was a simple knee-high stump. It seems like a minoramenity,butitprovidesaflat,stablesurfaceforcutting,chopping,shaping,andanything that can be done with a one-handed tool. The stump vise previouslydiscussedhasseveraladvantagesandcanbeusedanumberofdifferentways.
Many of these are used as bucking logs as well with a V cut channeled outhorizontallyandawidekerfcutbelowtheV.Akerfcutisachannelprecreatedlike a jig from a saw cut. It is intended to guide the placement of the next cut.Thensmallermaterialscanbelaidwithinthechannelandcuttolength.Thekerfcutisusedasaguideforsawingoffmateriallikefirewood.
Overtime,theconstructionofthesebencheshasadvancedsothattheyincludelegs,whichmakesthemmorecomfortableforsittingbutlesspracticalasaplacetohangtoolsandcutwood.
PEASANTBENCH
Thissimpleworkbenchincludesahalf-hewnlogorflatslabwiththreeorfourlegs attached. Eventually this evolved into what we now know as the shavinghorse. Some peasant benches included a piece of rope that looped around thebenchandheldtheworkinplace.Theworker’sfootwouldholdthelooptotheground.
BESOM
Abesomisbasicallyabroom.Old-timebesomsweremadefromanumberofdifferentmaterials.Theycouldbeassimpleasawhisk-likebroomforthehearthorafull-sizedfloorbroomtotidyuparoundthecabin.Today,Europeanbesomsare still made from hazel and small willow shoots. In the eastern woodlands,alderandbirchmakeexcellentbesomheads.Ifyouhaveaccesstoanopenfield,a broom made from long grasses makes an ideal whisk. There are a number ofmethodsforconstructingabesom;here’stheeasiestone:
Youwillneed:
A10'lengthofstrongcord
Agood,strongpredriedsaplingofhardwood(likemaple)cutto4'
Enoughheadmaterial(suchasgrasses)tocompletelyfillyourhandsothatonlyyourthumbandmiddlefingertouch
Align the tops of your head matter and trim the bottom to the desired length.Youcanevencutthisatanangleifyouwishtocreateanangle-headedbesom.Oncethetrimmingiscompleteitistimetowrapthebundle.Thebestwaytodothisistowrapthecordaroundanotherstickthatyoucanstandontopulltensionagainstthebundleasyouwrap.Thenreleaseabitoflineatatimebyliftingfootpressureoffthestick.Startwithatimberhitchandmakeseveralwrapsabout4"from the top of the bundle. End this wrap with a clove hitch. Then drop yourcordagedownabout2"andmakeanotherwrapthesameasthefirst.Preparethehandle by sharpening one end to a point. Drive the pointed end of the handledownthroughthetopoftheheadwithawoodenmalletuntilitpassesthesecondwrap.Younowhaveabesomthatshouldlastseveralmonths.
AXEANDTOOLHANDLEREPLACEMENT
It is inevitable that tool handles are going to break when you’re in a long-termcamp.Forthatreason,youneedtounderstandhowtocreateandreplacehandlestoextendthelifeofyourtools.
Hickoryisthepreferredwoodforstraighttoolhandles.Forbenthandles,ashisthebetterwood.Forshorterhandlesorformauls,mapleisagoodchoice.
Handlesaregenerallymadefromgreensapwood.Heartwoodwithinthehandlemay cause warping during the drying and curing process. Some shrinking willoccuralso,somakehandlesalittleoversizedinwidth.Ittakesseveralweeksforgreenwoodtofullydrybeforethehandlecanbefinallyshapedandhelvedtothetool.
AXEHANDLES
Axehandlesarethemostcommonitemrequiringreplacementatanycamp.Ifyoucanmakeagoodaxehandle,allotherhandletypeswillbeeasyforyou.
Throughout most of history the axe handle was straight, but recently there hasbeenalotofspeculationaboutthevalueofthecurveddog-legdesignanddoe-orcolt-foot design. Curved handles are helpful for carving-type blades. That said,thereisnoneedtocreateextraworkforyourselfunlessyouwant.Astraighthandleworksperfectlywithasingle-bitaxe,butexperimenttoseewhatyoulikein a design and determine what is most comfortable to you. I prefer straighthandlesformylargeraxeandhandleswithabitofanarcformycarvingaxe.
Allhandleshaveanoval-shapedcrosssectionsothattheyfitcomfortablyinthehand.Longhandlesshouldbethinsothatwhentheyareswung,weightisplacedforward.Shorterhandlesshouldbethickertoensureasolidgrip.
When making a larger axe handle with a 21⁄2-pound head weight or heavier,startwithahickorylogthatisabout10"indiameterand30"long.Splitthislogandquarterthehalves.Thenselectthebest1⁄8sectiontouseforyourhandle.
Nextcleavetheheartwoodfromtheplankyouhaveselected.Ifthematerialis
stilltoothick,cleaveitagain.Therestofthequartersshouldbestoredoffthegroundwheretheycandryoutforlateruse.
For quick short axe handles, you simply need a hewing hatchet and a knife.For longer handles, a drawing knife will give you more flexibility to shape thehandle. Start by squaring your wood as best you can, paying attention to thegrainlinesinordertoensurethatthetopofthehandlehasagoodstraightgrain.If you still have the old handle, you can even trace it to make a pencil patternrightonthehickorywood.Ashavinghorsecomesinhandywhenyouareforming the shape of the handle. Don’t forget to leave room for the piece toshrinkwhiledrying.
Axehandle
WEDGEANDHELVING
Before helving the axe you will need to saw a kerf cut from the top of thehandle area to insert a wedge after the handle is in place. The wedge should becarved of hardwood and left a little longer than what is needed for it to be evenwith the handle. On the finished product you ideally want about 1⁄4"–1⁄2" of thehandle above the eye of the tool. Metal wedges are not essential if the axe ishung correctly and then soaked in hot oil or tallow. Soaking the axe in oil afterhelvingwillmakethewoodswellandalsosealit.Irecommendthatyoucoatthehandlewithbirchoilafteritiscompletedandhung.Addanothercoateachweek
foronemonthandthencoateverymonthforthefirstyear.Thiswillhelpmaintainthehandleandkeepitfromcrackingordryingoutovertime.
MAKINGAWOODBOW
Before you jump into bow making, please understand that it is complicated.Thereisavastdifferencebetweenaquickbowthatlastsaweekortwoandonethat will last until the wood rots. There might be times when you need tomanufacturesomethingonthefly,butitisalwaysnicetobuildalastingbow.
Youwilllearnaboutbothhere.
Hereareafewtermsrelatedtobowconstructionthatyoushouldknow:
Limbs—theportionofthebowthatbends.
Riser—thestaticpartofthebowthatsitsinyourhand.
Belly—thesideofthebowthatfacesyou.
Back—thesideofthebowthatisfarthestawayfromyouwhenyouareshooting.
Shelf—thisisarestforthearrowandcanbecutrightintotheriserorcanbeaddedwithapieceofboneorwood.
Stringnocks—theportionsatthegroovedendofeachlimbthatacceptthebowstringandkeepitfromslidingdownthelimbswhenthebowisstrung.Tiller—thebendofthebowfromtiptoriser.
The limbs are the portion of the bow that bends, and the riser is static in thehandunlessyouarebuildingabowthatispurposelymeanttobendinthehandlearea. This works well with green sapling bows for quick use but also addsdramaticallytohandshock.
QUICKSAPLINGBOWS
Whichever bow you are building, it is critical that construction nevercompromisestheoutermostgrowthringonthebackofthelimbs.Thisringwillgive the bow the greatest stability when it is bent on draw and will prevent thewoodfromsplitting.Forthatreason,choosingtherightwoodisjustasimportant
asproperbowconstruction.Selectahardwoodwithalotoffibersinthegrainofthe wood, which will add to the durability. Hickory, maple, and red oak are themost common woods used to make a bow. Find a piece of wood that is clear ofknotsandlimbs.Useasaplingthatisabout3"indiameterand6'long.Markthecenterofthispiecewithaknifecutrightinthebark.Wrapyourhandaroundthebowwiththetopofyourfistpositionedatthatmarkandthenplaceanothermarkatthetopofyourgrip.
Nowthatyouhavefoundthecenter,makesurenottoremoveanywoodfromthis area. Examine the piece and see if there is already a natural bend in thewood that you can take advantage of. When finished, the profile of your limbsshould be almost triangular with rounded corners. Sharp corners are prone tocracking.
When looking at the top and bottom of the riser, you will want the limbs toslowly taper from approximately 3" wide to 1" wide at the string nocks. Useyourknifeoraxetobeginremovingmaterialinaslowtaperfromtheriserdownto the limb tips. Remember, the more wood you remove, the lighter the bow’sdraw will be. You want a triangular shape that reduces the length of the limbfrom riser to the tip. As you go, check the tiller of each limb of the bow. Youwant the bend to be an even arc. Looking for the curve takes a good deal ofpractice, and you will probably break a few bows while you are learning. Tillerbothlimbssothattheybendabout3"inanevenarcwhenyouplacetheinstepofyourfootonthelimbandpushontheriserarea.
Nowitistimetostringthebowandbeginthefinaltillerofthebow.Usingastring that has ten times the tensile strength of the bow draw you desire isimportant.Forexample,ifyouwanta50-poundbow,youwillneedastringthathas a 500-pound tensile breaking strength. I find that #36 bankline fashionedintotwo-plycordagegivesabout700poundsoftensilebreakingstrength,whichisplentyforanybowIwouldmake.Whencuttinginthestringnocks,becarefultomakethemonlyasdeepasabsolutelynecessaryandanglethematabout45°downtowardtheriser.
TESTING THE TILLER
Toconnectthebowstringandstringthebow,useasolidloopononeendofthe string like a bowline and an adjustable knot like a timer hitch on the otherthatcanbesecuredwithahalfhitch.Stepthroughthebowandbringthestringup and around the limb tip at the top with the loop already seated in the lowerlimbnock.Bracetheriserareaagainstthebackofthekneeandbendthelimbsequally.Donottrytogetthebowtofinalbracingheight.Theactualdistanceofthe string from the belly of the riser is usually about 6"–7" at this point. Juststringittightenoughforthebowtobendabout3".Afterthis,youcanbegintoexercisethelimbsbyslowlydrawingthebowwithnoarrow,afewinchesatatime, yet never to fully drawn yet. At this point you are just breaking in thelimbs.
The best way I have found to examine the tiller while in the field is to sit onthe ground and put the riser of the bow under the instep of your foot. Pull thebow with both hands and look over both limbs as they bend. If the tiller is offand one limb is bending more than the other, you will need to remove smallamountsofmaterialfromthebellyofthestifferlimb.Takecarenottooverdoitbecause you will end up with a bow that is too lightweight. After the bow hasbeenstretchedabout50–100timesandthetillerappearstobegood,youshouldtighten the string to a brace height of about 5". Start the process of flexing andcheckingthetilleragain.Ifthebowistoostiffagain,removemorematerialbutbecareful.Ifitisgoodandyoucompletetheexerciseprocess,thenyoucangotofullbraceheightor6"–7".Theendgoalisforthedrawtobegoodenoughtoholdatfulldrawuntilthecountoften.Makesurethetillerisevenonbothends.
Rememberthatatthispointyouhaveagreen-woodbowanditwilltakeonapermanentbendveryeasily,sotakeoffthestringswhenyouarenotusingit.Letthewooddrynaturally,anditwilleventuallymatureintoaprettygoodbow.Asitdriesitwillgetstiffer,soeventuallyyouwillneedtosealitwithoiltopreventfurtherdryingandpossiblecracking.
PERMANENTWOODBOWS
Thewoodselectionprocessshouldbethesameforapermanentbow.
Generally you want to harvest the wood in the spring. Split the log four waysand then you have four possible bow staves. Remove the bark and keep thewood dry and off the ground for at least four seasons. Once the staves are dry,selectthebestonethatdoesnothaveanyknotsortwists.Oncethewoodisdry,adrawknife,heavyhorsehoofrasp,andashavinghorsemightcomeinhandy.Whenworkingwithdrywood,youmightactuallywanttocarveariserandshelfrightintothewood.Thencarveaflatsideintothearrowsideoftheriserwithasmallshelfforthearrow—about1⁄2"fortheriserand1⁄4"fortheshelfisplenty.
Sincethewoodisdry,itneedstobetreatedwithgreatcareduringthisprocess
sothatitdoesnotcrack.Sealitimmediatelywithanimalfatortallow.Again,never store a wood bow in the strung position; always unstring and layhorizontallyacrosstwopegsorforks.Avoidexcessheatordirectsunonthebow.
MAKINGARROWS
It is not overly complicated to make arrows. You will need wood, cane, orbamboo between 1⁄4" and 1⁄2" thick and about 3" longer than your full drawlength.Collectandbundletheshootswithstringtohelpkeepthemstraightwhilethey dry. Once the shoots are dry, remove the bark and check for overallstraightness.Heatanycrookedareasoverthefireandbendthemintoplacewithyourhand.
Next you will need to choose a hunting tip for the arrow; your selectiondependsonhowyouplantouseit.Afishingarrowcanbecarvedintoagig.Anarrow for small game can be carved to a fairly blunt point and fire-hardened intheashandcoalbelowyourfire.Youwillwantthelargestendoftheshafttobethe front. Now it is time to set up the string nock. This will also need to becarvedorcutintothearrow.Adeep,roundedVwillworkifyoudonothaveasaw or the ability to carve a nicer notch. Once you have a notch, you can beginto tune the arrows. You might make a lot that do not shoot well. The weight orbendintheshaftmighthavesomethingtodowiththis.Selectthebestones—theones that fly about 8–10 yards—and fletch them. Fletching an arrow simplystabilizes the flight path over distance (you do not need to do this process forbow-fishingarrowsbecausetheyonlyneedtotravelaveryshortdistance).
FLETCHING
Fletchingistheprocessofattachingafletch,usuallyafeather,toanarrow.
You can improvise with duct tape, but feathers really work best. Collect anyfeathers you see while you are walking around or harvest them from any fowlyou kill for food. Feathers from larger bird species such as turkey and goosework best for this. If you use a standard three-feature fletch, make sure thefeatures come from the same wing because there is a natural bend, called ahelical,toeveryfeatheronthewing.Tailfeathersdonothaveahelicalbend,butyoushouldkeepthosetogetherwiththeirkindtoo.
Youcanattachthefeatherbytyingitonwithathinstringorusingadhesives.It is always a good idea to wrap the area of the arrow that you have notched forplacingthestring.Thisensuresthatitwillnotsplitapartwhenthearrowisshot.Ihavefoundthataleatherjigworksbestforsecuringthearrow,nomatterhowitisattached.
Take a 3" square of leather or bark (such as birch) and draw a triangle on it.Find the center point of the triangle and make three slits from the center to thecorner of each point. Slide this over the arrow shaft and it will guide you forattachingthefeathers.Igenerallyusefeathersabout4"–5"long,andtheycanbecut in any pattern you choose, but wider feathers will slow the arrow’s travelmore quickly. Large feathers, called flu arrows, are used to keep arrows fromtraveling long distances in flight when they are being used for aerial or closegroundtargets.Toprocessthefeathers,splitdownthequillofthefeather,whichis best done by separating the feather at the top and tearing in oppositedirections.Thiscanbedonewithaknifeaswell.Oncethefeatherissplit,trimittothedesiredsizeandshapeitwithabout1⁄4"ofshaftleftbareonbothends.
Fletching
The feathers are then fed through the leather guide and wrapped first at thefronttowardthearrowtip.Theycanthenbegluedorwrappedalongthelengthbymovingtheguidetowardthebackofthearrow.Thenthebuttofthearrowiswrappedwithabout1⁄2"betweenthenockandthebeginningofthefletching.
STRINGS
Asmentioned,thestringmustbetentimesthebreakingstrengthofthebow’sfullydrawnpullweight,buttherearemanyoptionsforstrings:Artificialsinew,bankline,rawhide,andparacordarealloptions.Justbesureyouunderstandhowmanystrandsofeachwillneedtobecordedtomakeasafebow.Tofigurethisout,youmustknowthetensilestrengthofyourmaterial.
Bowstringandknots
TIPSANDTRICKS
Ifyouneedasimplepotscrubber,takesomebroomsedge,folditinhalf,andwrapitonetimeasyouwouldabesomatapointabout1⁄2"fromthetop.Cutittoabout3"totalandyouwillhaveagreatpotandpancleaner.
Ifyouarenotsureaboutthewooddensityorhardnessofthewoodyouare working, place it in water. Softwoods will float high in the water,whilesomehardwoodswillactuallysink.
Whenworkingwiththinnerwoodorpieceswithasmallerdiameter,makesuretheyarefairlydry;otherwise,theywillcrackovertime.
Bows should never be left in a vertical position. Always store themhorizontallywithouttheirstringsandwithtwosupportsunderthelimbs.
Whenshootingabow,mechanicsareeverything.Besuretousethesameanchor (the location where the draw stops). Like a finger touching atooth,thiswillgreatlyimproveconsistency.
Chapter11
BLACKSMITHING
“I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only theessentialfactsoflife,andseeifIcouldnotlearnwhatithadtoteach,andnot,whenIcametodie,discoverthatIhadnotlived.”
—HENRYDAVIDTHOREAU
In the old days, the blacksmith was one of the most important people in everyvillage. He alone could manufacture parts for tools such as axes and chisels aswellasweaponslikeknivesandswords.Ironwascreatedbysmeltinginablastfurnace with extremely high temperatures that could liquefy the metal. Theliquidorewouldrunfromthebottomofthefurnace.Inthebeginning,thisliquidwouldbedivertedintochannelsinthesandwithfingerchannelsemanatingfromthe main channel so that once cooled it could be broken down into manageablepieces. It was said that this configuration resembled a sow laid on the groundsucklingpiglets;thisiswheretheterm“pigiron”originated.Thisironwashighin carbon and too hard for forging, but it could be remelted and poured intomolds, creating “cast” iron. Wrought iron was produced by melting iron in aspecial furnace and stirring it to remove impurities and carbons. It was thentakenfromthisfurnaceinaclumpedmassandhammeredundersteamorwaterto form large lumps of hand-worked iron that could be forged by hammer andanvil.
Withallofthesemethods,theblacksmithwaslikeanengineer.Heneededtomakeprecisetoolsthatwouldaideverymemberofsocietyfromthefarmerto
thedoctortothehunterandtrapper.Theabilitytomanipulatemetalhasalwaysbeenamainstayofsurvivability.
Today blacksmithing is an endlessly valuable skill that allows you to bothrepairandcreateawidearrayofresourcesinthecampsetting.Ifyouareintheposition to carry blacksmithing tools on your trip, it will be helpful for you tohaveabasicknowledgeofthecraft.Herewewilldiscussthebasicsthatcanbemost helpful for long-term excursions but will also be convenient for small,quickprojects.
BLACKSMITHINGTOOLS
Most of the essential tools for small blacksmithing projects can fit into a 5-gallonbucket.Useametalbucketsothatyoucanrepurposeitforquenchingaswell.HereisachecklistofthemostcommonandusefulblacksmithingtoolsthatIrecommendkeepinginyourbucket:
AnvilHammerBellowsForgeandfuelPliersortongsChisel
GrindingstoneSand
Hardy holePritchelhole
ANVIL
Ananvilisahardenedflatpieceofsteelsurfaceuponwhichyoucanhammerandformhotmetal.Asmallpieceofrailroadtrackworksreallywellasananviland can be fashioned with a horn and hardy hole ahead of time. The horn is aconicalshapeattachedtothefrontoftheanvilthatcanbeusedforformingringsand circular shapes. The hardy can be used as an attachment point for othertools like bending forks. If you are not able to source a piece of railroad track,any large chunk of hard steel will work. Even a section of I-beam or other hardsteel such as an engine block will do—something that will serve as a hard, flatsurface.Iwouldrecommendasmallblockofsteelatleast6"×6"and2"thick.Therearealsostumpanvilsavailablethatdriveintoastump;youcanevendrivealargemetalwedgeintoastumpanduseitasananvil.
Partsoftheanvil
HAMMER
A cross-peen hammer, a heavy ball-peen hammer, or a 11⁄2-pound sledge areveryusefulbecausetheyarethemostversatile.Inextremecasesyoucoulduseyouraxeasahammer,butyouriskdamagingtheaxeormalformingtheeye.
BELLOWS
Itisbesttocarryahandbellows,similartothoseusedforafireplace,butyoucan also improvise this tool. Fanning the forge is what maximizes the heat sothatitispossibletobringthemetaltoforgingtemperatures.Itispossibletofanthefirewithabucketlidorotherflatfanningobjectinadireemergency,butthatwillgettiring.Ifthereisasteadybreeze,youcanbuildafirepitintheopenandthenplaceawedge-styletarpatananglewiththebackcornersetuptoforceairintothepitlikeafunnel.Animalskinscanbefashionedtocreateairbagswhencombinedwithatubeofbambooorpipetoforceairintoaforgeaswell.
PLIERSORTONGS
Youwillneedsomethingtoholdyourpiecewhileitisintheforge.Agoodsetof locking pliers or a set of heavy lineman’s pliers will work well for smallprojects.Forlargerprojectsyouwillneedatleastonesetofmultiplejaw–sizedtongs.
CHISEL
You will need at least one good hot-cutting chisel to cut off metal when heatedbeforeyoushapeit.Othertoolsalongtheselinesincludeacoupleofpunchesfordriftingeyesintoolheadsorpunchingsmallerholesforpinning.
GRINDINGSTONE
Some sort of rough and fine grinding stones will come in handy for finalshaping.Theseshouldnotbethesamestonesyouusefortoolmaintenance.Naturalstonesofdifferentgritscanbeusedinanemergencyforthisprocess,especiallybeforethemetalishardened.
SAND
Somecleansandwillcomeinhandyifyoucangetthemetaltoweldingtemperature,whichiswhite-hot.Thesandwillbeusedasafluxforforgewelding.
HARDYANDPRITCHELHOLES
Manyanvilshavetwoholesinthem:Thehardyissquareandthepritchelisround.Thehardyisusedforattachingtoolssuchascutoffs,bendingforks,andcones.Thepritchelisforthepunchtopassthroughwhenpunchingholes.
SOURCESFORMETAL
Youcansearcharoundplaceslikeoldhomesteadsforscrapmeldingtobeusedforyourprojects.Metalsarenotallthesame,andwhatyouneedwilldependontheproject.Asyou’researchingformaterialstorepurposeinyourblacksmithingefforts,keepaneyeoutforthefollowingtypesofmetals.
MILD STEEL
Barstocksandsheetmetalsareconsideredmildsteels.Nailsfromfencesoroldpalletswillmakegoodsmallstockforpins,fishhooks,etc.
MEDIUM-CARBONSTEEL
These are harder to locate unless you can locate a junked farm vehicle, butshaftingandplowbladesaregoodsourcesforthistypeofsteelaswellasrebar.
HIGH-CARBON STEEL
Thisisthehardesttocomebyand,inmostcases,themostdesirable.Itwillbeyourtoolsteelformakingknives,etc.Coilsprings,leafsprings,sawblades,oldfiles,Allenwrenches,andanyothersmalltoolwillmostlikelybemadeofhigh-carbonsteel.
Thenumbersonthechartdenotethesteelgradeandcertificationsystem:
RECLAIMEDMATERIALCHARTFORBLACKSMITHING
APPLICATION
NUMBER/LETTER
Agriculturalsteel
1080
Axels
1040
Ballbearingballs
52100
Ballbearingraces
52100
Band-sawblades
L-6
Bits,router
N2
Bolts,anchor
1040
Bolts,heat-treated
2330
Bolts,heavyduty
4815
Brakelever
1030
Cams
A6,S7
Chisels
O2,O6,L6
Clutchdisk
1070
Clutchsprings
1060
Coilsprings,auto
4063
Coilsprings,truck
5163
Cold-rolledsteel
1070
Connectingrods
1040
Crankshafts
1045
Cutters,bolt
S2,S7
Drifts
L6,S2,S7
Drills
N2
Endmills
M2
Fanblades
1020
Files
W-2
Gearshiftlevers
1030
Hammers
L6
Harrowdisk
1080
Hayraketeeth
1095
Jackhammerbits
S5
Knives,machine
M2
Knives,woodworking
O2
Leafsprings
1085,5160
Lockwasher
1060
Mauls
L6,S2
Mowerknives
1085
Musicwire
1085
Nailsets
L6
Plowbeams
1070
Plowdisk
1080
Plowshares
1080
Pneumatictools
L6,A6,S7
Punches,cold
A2,O2
Reamers
M2,O2,A2
Rollerbearings
4815
Screwdrivers
L6,S2
Snaprings
1060
Springclips
1060
Springsteel,clock
1095
Steeringarmbolts
3130
Taps
M2,O2
Transmissionshafts
4140
Tubing
1040
Universaljoints
1145
Valvesprings
1060
Wrenches
L6,S2
WORKINGWITHHARD METAL
Whenworkingwithmetal,youneedtounderstandhowtomakeithardandhowto make it soft. This process is a bit more complicated than just heating andcoolingthematerial.Metalneedstobeheatedtoacertaintemperature/colorandthen cooled at a certain rate. Many tool steels will also need to be tempered tocontrolhowbrittletheyaresothattheycanbesharpened.
NORMALIZING
When you begin to work with high-carbon steels, especially when you’remakingthingssuchasfiles,itisbesttonormalizethem,orbringoutsomeofthehardness,sothattheyarenotbrittle.Todothis,heatthemetaltoworkingtemperatureandthenletitair-coolbeforeheatingandforgingagain.
ANNEALING
This process softens a hard metal such as high-carbon steel so that it can beworked more easily by hammer or grinding. In this process you will heat themetal until it turns bright orange and then place it in some medium such as thecool ashes from an old fire or warm sand where it can cool naturally. Anothermethod is to build a fire and place the metal to be annealed at the bottom of thefire. Use the fire for cooking and other camp activities, then allow it to coolovernight.Retrievethemetalinthemorningwhenthepithascompletelycooled.At this point, when it has cooled, your metal will be as soft as it can be. Thisprocess can be especially important if you are making knife blades from high-carbonsteel.Itisdoneafterforgingtheinitialshapesothatstockremovalcanbeeasily accomplished to form the final profile and grind. The tool is then heat-treatedandtempered.
HEAT-TREATING
Heat-treatingmetalisnecessarytoachievethedesiredinitialhardnessofthemetalbeforetempering.Whenmetalisheat-treateditmustbebetakentoa
certaincolorortestedwithamagnettomakesureithasreachedanonmagneticstate. Then it will be quenched in a different material depending on desiredhardness.
QUENCHING
For a metal to become as hard as it can truly be it needs to be quenched(dunked) in water or some other liquid when the proper color is achieved andthenlefttocool.Becarefulbecausesometimesthisprocesswillmakethemetalbrittletoo.Firesteelsaregenerallyquenchedinwater.Oilisacommonquenchmaterialformostprojects,andmotoroilwillworkfineforthisifyoucanfindit.
TEMPERING
Temperingsteelisabitofanart.Thisprocessrequiresyoutoreadthecolorofthe metal. When you temper a metal you soften it from its hardened state eitherinpartorinwholedependingonthetool.Totemperapieceofmetalinaforgefire, place the project in the coals of a fire and watch the color change as thematerial heats up. For example, if working with a knife blade, you would placethebladeinapositionwiththespineagainstthecoalbedandthebladeupward.The color of the spine will turn a bluish color. As this color rises to the bladeedge, the edge will become a straw yellow color before turning blue. At thispointremovethebladeandquenchitinoiltostoptheheatingprocess.Thebladeisnowtempered.
TEMPERINGCOLORS
TOOL
DESIREDCOLOR
Woodchisels
Palestrawyellow
Hammers
Straw
Drillingtools
Darkstraw
Coldchiselsandpunches
Purple
Springs
Paleblue
MAKINGKNIVES
Itiseasiesttomakeknivesfromanexistingbladesuchasaroundsaworwideband-saw blade. The beginning shape can be hot cut after the piece isnormalized.Afulltangknifethatwilllastalifetimecanbefashionedinfairlyshort order by minimal stock reduction after annealing. Two holes will need tobepunchedinthehandlewhileitishotpriortoheat-treatingandtempering.
Theseholeswillbeusedtopinthehandleinplace.Thefinaledgeshouldnevergo on until the very end of the project. Tools such as saw blades and files arealreadyveryhard,andmanycansimplybesnappedofftolengthbybendingorstrikingthemwithahammeronthesideoftheanvil.Fashioningarat-tailtangknifefromafileisoneoftheeasiestwaysofmakingaviablebladeandagoodstartingprojecttogetusedtoworkingthemetal,heat-treating,andtempering.
MAKINGANAXE
Making an axe from flat stock is a bit more advanced in skill because itrequires forge welding to accomplish it correctly. However, you can use anexistingtoolheadsuchasaball-peenhammerorroofinghatchet,andthenforgetoshapeit.Youwillalreadyhavetheeyeandjustneedtoformthebladetothedesired profile. Remember that the major difference between an axe and atomahawkisthewayoneismountedtothehandle.Thetomahawkwillrequireonly a rounded eye into which a stick can fit. An axe will require drifting; thismeansyouwillforceaholethroughhotmetalwithapunchwherethehandleiswedgedintoplaceandinsertedfromthebottom.
MAKING AFIRESTEEL
Tomakeafiresteelforflintandsteelisaneasyprocess;youmust,though,usehigh-carbonsteel.Youwillneedtoannealthematerialfirstandsandorgrindagoodcleanedgeonthestrikingsurface.Youcanshapethestrikerinmany ways but a typical C is the most common. Once the form you desire isachievedyouwanttoheatthemetaltoaglowingyellow(notforgingheat).Atthispointquenchonlythestrikingedgeinwaterforseveralseconds,then
submergetheentiretool.Whenfinisheditshouldthrowsparkswell.Ifnot,youdidnotgetthemetalhardenoughoritwasnothigh-carbonsteel.Filesmakethebeststrikers.Youcanalwaysreheatandtryagain.
BUSHCRAFTTIP
Forge welding is a true skill and takes time to get it right. In forgeweldingyouareheatingmetaltoalmostthemeltingpointandthenforcing it together with sudden impact while it is still in this near-liquidstate.Itisamazingtosee,likeasparklershowontheFourthof July. Before attempting this weld you will need to clean thesurfacestobeweldedwithawirebrush,ifpossiblewhiletheyareorange-hot.Thenaddsandforafluxbeforethefinalheattoweld.
Nowgetthemetalalmostwhite-hot.Itwillappearverybrightyellow, and a few sparks should be coming from it. Be carefulbecauseifyouwaitafewsecondstoolong,youwillmeltofftheworkintheforgeandallwillbelost.
Once the welding heat is attained it is critical to get the piece orpieces to the anvil and strike several times. Don’t smash the metalwith heavy blows; just pound hard enough to compress it when inthisnear-liquidstate.Itmayrequireafewmoreorange/yellowheatsto complete the process, but to be effective, a good weld shouldhappenonthefirsttime.
Thesearethecolorsyouarelookingforinthemetalwhendoingforgingtaskstoformthematerials:
FORGINGCOLORS
COLOR
MATERIAL
Dullred
Hardeningorannealinghigh-carbonsteel
Mediumred
Hardeningorannealingmediumsteel,minorbends
Brightred
Annealingmildsteel
Orange/yellow
Forginghigh-carbonsteel,hotcutting
Yellow
Forgingmediumsteel
Brightyellow
Forgingmildsteel
Brightyellow(throwingafewwhitishsparks)
Welding
OTHERUSEFULITEMS FROMTHE FORGE
NailsLog dogsFroeAugerRaftdog
SquirrelcookerFire ironsHooksHoldfastsAdze
Wood chiselsMortisechiselsBrace
Chapter12
CONTAINERSANDCONVEYANCES
“Climbthemountainsandgettheirgoodtidings.Nature’speacewillflowintoyouassunshineflowsintotrees.Thewindswillblowtheirownfreshnessintoyou,andthestormstheirenergy,whilecareswilldropofflikeautumnleaves.”
—JOHNMUIR,OURNATIONALPARKS
Maintainingalonger-termcampwillrequirerestockingwithsuppliesormaybeevenmovinglocations,andforthatyou’llneedcontainersandconveyances.
Here you’ll learn to fashion your own, from simple water containers to firingyourownclaypotstobuildingwatercraft.Igroupedcontainersandconveyancestogether in one chapter because they both relate to transportation: one to thetransportationofgoodsandtheothertothetransportationoffood.
WATERCONTAINERS
Watercontainersshouldbeofsuchmaterialthatyoucanusethemtocarrywaterover a distance and also as cooking vessels at camp. Metal tends to be the bestoption because it can be placed right into the fire. You can also fold over asimplepieceofcanvas,sewit,andcreateacontainertocarryseveralgallonsofwater over a distance. Rawhide can be fashioned into a container by a processcalled stone boiling (see the next section). You can also carve and burncontainers out of wood. Throughout history, wooden bowls and trenchers havebeen used for all kinds of liquids. The kuksa, or Sami, cup was carved or burntfromaburlofabirchtree.
POSSIBLEWATERCONTAINERSFORCAMP
Birchbark
AnybarkharvestedinthespringWood
Rawhide
Stomachsofanimals(betterforcarryingthancooking)
STONEBOILING
Stone boiling is a process for disinfecting water or cooking food without ametalornonflammablecontainer.Tostoneboilyouwillneedtoheatrocksinafireuntiltheyareglowinghotandthentransferthemtothecontainerofwaterin
order to bring it to boiling temperature. Avoid using rocks found near water orporous rocks such as limestone. Look for rocks that are about fist size or a bitsmaller.Youcanusemuchsmallerrocksifthatisallyoucanfind,butknowthatthey will not work as efficiently. Remember that the stones will displace thewater, so the size of the container you use will dictate what you can do here. Ifthereisachancethatthecontaineryouareusingmayburn,lowertherocksintothewaterandholdthemforafewsecondsbeforedroppingthem.
Stoneboilingisamessyprocessandcanbedangerous.YouwillneedagoodsetoftongsoraYbranchwithanotherstickthatyoucanusetomanipulatetherocks. Guide the rocks with the plain stick into the Y branch so you can holdthem.Youneedacleanboil,sotakecaretoknockanyashofftherockonceitislifted from the fire before placing it into the container. I have used manydifferent containers, from dry bags to safety helmets, for stone boiling. Almostanythingworksfineaslongasyouarecareful.Evennaturalcontainerswillworkifyouhavethetimetomanufacturethem.
Youcanevenuseawaterprooftarptolineaholeinthegroundandthenboilinthepit.Foodcanbeboiledthiswaytoo,butitmighttakeacoupleofboilsforthefoodtocookproperly.Justmakesurethatthestonesaredryandcleanfromany mud and debris. Get a large fire going with a good bed of coals. Place therocksonthecoalbedandbuildmorefireontop.Whenthestonesglowred,theyarereadyforuse.
BASKETS
Baskets are a fantastic choice for carrying any materials that are not liquid. Forthousandsofyearspeopleusedlargepackbasketstocarrytheirentirecamp!Theonly limitations are the gaps between the weaves and the size of the basket. Asmall basket can be used for collecting edibles. Baskets can also be used forcertaintraps.
CLAYVESSELS
Firedclayvesselsareanothertypeofcontainerthathasbeenusedforthousandsofyears.Theprocessformakingclaypotsisverysimple,buteverystepmustbefollowedcarefullyandcompletelybecausethesmallestmisstepcancompromisethevessel’sintegrityduringandafterfiring.
PROCESSINGCLAY
Firstyouwillneedtocollectaquantityofclay.Unlessyouareinaclay-basedsoilarea,youwillneedtogohuntingforthis.Diginthemudaroundcreekbedsand riverbanks to look for a slick and tacky mud layer. Roll this material into aball to see if it stays together without cracking too much. If so, this materiallikely has some clay. Clay can appear in different colors from red to gray towhite.
Once you have collected what you believe to be the purest clay, place it in acontainer of some sort. Back at camp, lay out the clay on a tarp and dry itcompletely in the sun. After it is dry, crush it as fine as possible and then siftthrough it with your hands or push it through some mesh to remove anyimpuritiessuchasstones,sticks,orgrass.Rememberthatasinglebladeofgrassleftintheclaycandestroyapotduringthefiringprocess.Themoisturefromthegrasswillevaporateduringthefiringandblowaholeinthesideofyourpot!
Toturnthiscrushedclayintosomethingthatcanbemolded,youwillneedwaterandabinder.Thebinderiswhataddssomerigiditytotheclayandmakesitformable.Drycattailfluff,crushedshell,andsandmakeexcellentbinders.
Mixtheclay,water,andbindertogetherahandfulatatimeonaflatsurfaceorastump. About one-third of the mix should be binder; add just enough water tomake the clay easy to mold so that it does not crack during the pot-makingprocess. You have reached the correct consistency when you can roll out apinky-sizedcoilandtieitinalooseknotinanover-and-underfashionwithout
crackingit.Wetyourhandswithalittlebitofwatertosmoothoutroughareasof
thepot.Makesurethereareonlyroundedcornersandneversharpangles.Oncethe pot is formed it should be left in the sun or set close to a fire until it driesthoroughly.
FIRINGCLAY
Oncethepotisdrybothinsideandout,topandbottom,itisreadytobefired.
I have found that resinous woods like pine work very well for this processbecausetheyfilltheporesofthepotveryefficientlyandcreateakindofglazeover the finished product. Start by putting your pot in the center of the areawhere you plan to build the fire. Try to elevate the pot from the ground with aplatform of sticks. Next build a fire around the pot, engulfing it in heat. Becarefulthatalargelogorstickfromthefiredoesnotfallonitduringthefiring.Use lots of smaller sticks because this fire will need to burn for a couple ofhours.Afterthat,letthefireextinguishcompletely,burningdowntoashesandcoolingbeforeyouattempttodisturborremovethepot.It’sveryeasytobreakpotsintheprocess,somyadviceistomakeseveralatatimetoensurethatat
leastacouplesurvive.Donoteventhinkaboutaddinghandlesatthispoint!Keepthemsimplebecauseyouwillhavegreatersuccess.
JACKWARE
Leathers can also be fashioned into containers called jackware. First draw asimple pattern similar to the bottom of an hourglass with a 2"-long neck and 1"width. Make two holes on either side of the container so that you can add ropehandles later. Leave extra room for a double row of stitches all the way aroundtheleather,exceptattheopening.Usethepatterntocutouttheleather;thengetit soaking wet so that it can be formed. Sew the container so that only theopeningatthetopoftheneckremains.Thenfilltheformedandsewedcontainerwithsandthathasbeenheatedinthefire.Packitinverytightlywitharammingstick(anystickabout1"indiameterwilldo).Packthesandtotheverytopofthecontainer and allow it to dry for a few days. Once it is dried, pour out the sandandrinsethecontainerquicklyjusttoremoveanyremainingparticles.
Pourmeltedbeeswaxdowntheinsideseamsofthecontainertosealittight.You can even make a stopper out of wood if you want to secure it closed. Youcanalsonowaddyourropeorstrapforahandle.
Cuppattern
GOURDS
Gourds cannot be found in the wild, but you can plant them at a permanentshelter or search for them around an older farmstead. Native Americans andpioneersalikeusedgourdsforcampitemssuchascontainers,ladles,andcups.Gourdscomeinmanyshapesandsizes.Oncetheyaredried,sandorscrapetheouterskinfromthegourd,cutitopen,andscoopoutanymembranesandseeds.Cutthemintoanyshapeyoudesireandthensealwithbeeswax.
BOATS
Hereareafewdifferentkindsofwatercraftthatcantransportyouandyourkitifnecessary.
RAFTS
Araftisasimpleconveyancethatcanbeusedtotransportyouandoryourgearoverdistanceinwater.Logsworkbestforthis,butsincetheyareroundyouneed to secure at least two together as a stable platform to keep them fromrolling in the water. In an emergency, lash (using shear lashings with cloverhitches) two or three logs at the end that you plan to straddle while floatingdown the creek or river. Be very careful about the dangers that lie underneathyou as you go—not just animals but snags and rocks that might catch yourclothingorlegsandpullyoufromtheraftinacurrent.Ifyouhavetimetobuildamoresecureraft,lashyourlogsonbothends.Trytoalwayssitcompletelyoutofthewaterontheraft,evenonahotday.Makesuretheraftiswideenoughforyoutodothis.Iftheamountofcordageyouhaveavailableisanissue,tryusingthinnercrossmembersontheendsoftheraftandlashthosetogethertolockthelogsinplace.Athirdoptionistomakeacatamaranofsortswithasingleloginthe middle and smaller logs lashed to either side on cross members. Navigatethis vessel by pointing the nose of the middle log and using a pole or paddle toguideitdownthewaterway.
Raftconstruction
DECKRAFT
Youcanbuildadeckraftbyattachingseverallogstogethertomakealargerdeck. You can hold this deck together in a variety of ways, depending on theresourcesyoualreadyhaveonhand.Logdogsaremetalimplementsthatcanberemovedwhenyou’redonewiththeraftandtakenbacktocampforanotheruse.Intheolddays,theseU-shapedbracketswouldbehammeredintotwologsthatwere side by side and then staggered to create a larger raft deck. Nails drivenintothecrossmembersonthedeckraftmakeamorepermanentsetup.Youcanalso lash together the logs and recover the cordage at the end of the trip. Deck-style rafts afford the opportunity to build a steering rudder on the back that isbuilt into a raised bracket. These deck rafts can also be large enough to hold ashelter tent for sleeping. They can also easily be fitted with a seat for longjourneys.
SAILINGARAFT
When we talked about building a long-term kit (see Chapter 1), I mentionedtheversatilityofanoilclothtarp.Thismaterialislightweightenoughthatitcanbeusedasasailforyourraft.Whenyouareassemblingyourraft,notchthe
centerlogatabout8"–10"intothedecksothatamastcanfitintoit.Useagreensaplingthatisabout3"indiameter,andshavetheendalittlebitsothatitscrewsfirmlyintothishole.Usingtheexistingtie-outsyouhaveonaTentsmiths-styletarp, you can lace the tarp up one side to the mast pole. Use a diagonal bracingpoleofabout11⁄2"diameterfromthemastabouttwotie-outsfromthebottomtotheuppercornerontheoutsideofthesail,andthenuseanotherpieceofropeonthenearcornertocontrolthesailintoandawayfromthewind.Youcanfastenthe mast with a loop of rope, but make sure it isn’t tied too tight. You want themasttoswingsothatthesailcanadjustwiththewind.
Attachingasail
RUDDERS
Arudderallowsyoutosteertheboatleftorrightwhiletraveling.Ruddersareessentiallylongoarsthatareattachedtothebackoftheraftandsitinthewater.You will need a stationary object or bracket to hold the rudder in place forsteering.Youwillalsoneedafulcrumfortherudder.BothofthesecaneasilybefashionedwithaYbranchplacedintoaholesimilartothemastholeattherearofthecraft.
ANCHORS
Sometimesyoumayneedtoanchoryourboatifyouplantofishorrest.
Makingananchorisincrediblysimple,andthematerialsyouchooseareatyourdiscretion.Asimplebagofrocksonalineattachedtotheraftwilldojustfine.Youcanevenimprovisesomethingoutofrailwayplates.
PADDLES/OAR
The terms paddle and oar are often confused, but there is a major differencebetweenthetwo.Oarsgenerallycomeinpairsandtendtobelongerandthinnerand are affixed with an anchoring bracket that can be pinned to a rowing craft.Paddlescanbeeithersingle-ordouble-sidedandcancomeinanyshape.Paddlesare used freehanded to move a craft forward. The type of material from whicheither paddles or oars are constructed can make a tremendous difference in theeasewithwhichyoucanmaneuverthecraft.
Use pieces that are at least 6" wide so that they operate as a serviceablepaddle.Thelengthisuptoyou,butstartwithsomethingthatisaslongasthedistancefromyourchintotheground.Fromthere,shorterlengthswithwiderbladesworkwellasscullingpaddles,forexample.
BULLBOATS
Some Native American tribes used bull boats to move skins, supplies, andfirewoodfromupriverareasbacktocamp.Theseboatswerelightweightsothat
theycouldeasilybecarriedoverlandandstoreduntilneeded.Sincethebullboatis round, most navigation is achieved by sculling the paddle. The earliest bullboats were made with a wood frame and covered with a skinned green buffalohidewiththehaironthewaterside.Oncetheskindriedintorawhide,itformedahardoutershellthatwaswaterproofanddurable.Manytimesthetailwasleftonthehideandusedasatugstrap.
These days, making a bull boat can still be accomplished using a tarp or aheavy piece of canvas as a skin. Note that plastic or poly tarps are not a greatideaforthesecraftsbecausetheyarelikelytoteareasilyiftheygetsnaggedonanythinginshallowwater.
Tobuildabullboat,collectseveralflexiblesaplingsabout11⁄2"–2"indiameterfortheframe.Firstcreatethehoopsizethatyouwantforthefinishedcraft.
Eventually this will be the top or the gunnels of the boat. Lay this hoop on thegroundandthenlashasaplingbentfromendtoendacrossthecenter.Bendfourmoresamplingsandlashthemathalfthedistanceinbothdirections.Younowhaveasolidframethatcanbe“skinned”tocreateyourboat.Toaddtheskin,itisbesttoturntheframeuprightontopofthetarpthatyouplantouse,drawingallthe excess material inside the frame. If you do not have tie-outs on the tarp, usetogglesorsmallstonestosecureittightlyinsidetheframe.Toaddbuoyancyyoucanmakeawreathorflotationcirclearoundtheoutsideoftheboat.Toconstructthis wreath, place stakes into the ground and lay bows onto the staked frame,lashingthemaroundtheperimeteroftheboat.Thenfinishtheframeinthesamemannerasbeforeandskinitthesameway.Theadvantagetothiskindofboatisinthewayitfloats.
Bullboat
DUGOUTS
Dugouts, essentially canoe-type boats, are among the most resilient ofwatercrafts.Thatsaid,theyarealsoverylabor-intensive.Youwillneedapropertree of lighter wood such as poplar. Poplar wood will be easier to carve or burnout—whichevermethodyouelecttouse.DanielBoone’sdugoutwasmadefromtheyellowortulippoplartree.Thisprojectrequiresagoodaxeandafewothercarving tools. Select a log that is at least one-and-a-half times wider than youandabout8'–12'inlength.Thesizereallydependsonthekindoftimeyouhaveandtheequipmentyouarecarrying.
Oncethelogisprepared,carvetheendsintoawedgeshapethatwillhelpthevessel cut through water. Then you will remove the bark from the log—a taskthat is much easier in spring than in winter. Now it is time to hew the log forfurtherprocessing.Setupahewinglineonthelogthatisabouttwo-thirdsofthewayupfromthebottomofthelog.Youcanmakeasimplechalklinebysimplyrubbing a string with charcoal and popping a cordage down at both sides tocreateavisiblelinethatwillguideyouasyoucut.
Make a series of V notches down the top of the log about 3' apart and cutdown to the line. Turn the log on its side and remove the areas between the Vcuts with your axe. This process is called hewing the log and is identical to theprocessusedtomakedimensionaltimberfromaroundlog.Onceyouhaveaflatsurface,rollthelogagaintothetopanddecidewhatmethodyouwilluseto
make the center cavity where you will sit. Make your decision to burn or carvebasedontheavailabletools.Ifyouhaveanadzetoolfordiggingoutthespace,useitinconjunctionwithanaxe.Oryoucanburndownthecavityasyouwouldto make a bowl: burn and scrape, burn and scrape, until you reach the desireddepth and width of the cavity. The advantage to digging is that the log will drymoreslowly,whichmakesitlesslikelytocrack.
Dugoutboat
PACKFRAMES
Apackframe,whilenotacontainerorconveyance,allowsyoutocomfortablycarry items over distance. Pack frames come in many configurations, from asimpletriangleofthreestickstobent-woodhoopframesandpackboards.Theabilitytoremovethepackfromtheframeanduseitforcarryingthingssuchasfirewoodorgameiswhatmakesframesinvaluableforlong-termexcursions.
Youcaneasilyimprovisestrapsforyourframefromrope,webbing,ormuletape.
TIPSANDTRICKS
Whenbuildingwatercraft,rememberthatanyvesselwillneedtodisplacemorewaterbyvolumethantheweightitisintendedtocarry.
Remember,asmallercraftlikeabullboatcanbemadetotowpartofyourgearifnecessary,butneverputallyoureggsinonebasket.Carryequipmentonasmallerboatthatyoucantowincasetheboatyouareridingintipsorflips.
Makesuretobuildyourwatercraftclosetowatersothatyoudonothavethatfartocarryitwhenitiscomplete.
Ifburningthecavityforadugout,cakesomemudontheedgesnearyourworkspacebecausethiswillactasafireretardant.
When conveyance is not possible, you may be surprised at how littleweightyoucancomfortablycarryoverdistance.Fortheaverageperson,30 pounds should be your limit. If you can make more than one trip toyourcamplocationwithsupplies,theneachloadislighterandyouwillbeabletobringmoreequipment.
AppendixA
TARPSETUPS
Followingisaquickreferenceofbasictarpsetupstoassistyouwithyourcampconfiguration.Thisformoftemporaryshelter,ifproperlyconstructed,willkeepyou safe from wind and precipitation. You can then set up a bed of yourchoosingtocombatgroundconvection.
AppendixB
DUTCH-OVENCOOKING
Cast-iron cookware has been a staple of camps since the first North Americansettlersarrived.TheDutchovenisaboutthemostversatilecookingimplementinyourlong-termkit.IntheDutchovenyoucanboil,fry,bake,andbraise.Youcan put it right on the fire coals and even flip the lid upside down to use as askilletformakingpancakes!
CARINGFORYOURDUTCHOVEN
Awell-maintainedDutchovenwilllastyouforever.Rememberthatyoushouldneverusesoaptocleancast-ironcookery.Cleanitgentlywithrunningwaterandwipe out any grease and food bits with a cloth. If it is really well seasoned, youmaynotevenneedwatertocleanitandcanjustwipeitoutafteruse.BeforeyouevenuseyourDutchoven,makesureyouhaveseasoneditproperlyaccordingtothemanufacturer’sinstructions.
SEASONINGYOURDUTCHOVEN
Oftentimes, a Dutch oven will arrive coated in a wax that prevents it fromcrackingwhenitisstoredandshippedfromthemanufacturer.Togetridofthiswax,placeyourDutchovenupsidedowninaconventionaloventhathasbeenheatedto350°F.Dothesamewiththelid.YoumightwanttoputacookiesheetlinedwithtinfoilundertheDutchovenwhileyouarebakingoffthewaxjustincaseanyresiduedrops.Theretendstobealotofsmokingduringthisprocess—donotbealarmed!Oncethesmokingstops,theDutchovenisreadytobe
seasoned.Washitoutwithsoapandwater(thisistheonlytimeyouwillletsoaptouchit)assoonasitiscoolenoughtohandle.
SeasoningtheDutchovensealsitsothatitdoesnotrustandensuresthatyourfooddoesnottakeonametallictaste.Preheattheovento425°F.WipetheDutchoven down with a rag soaked with some kind of cooking oil such as olive,canola,orvegetableshortening.Makesureyouwipetheinsideandoutside,topandbottom,anddothesameforthelid.Bakethemintheovenforanhourorsountil the smoking has stopped. Repeat this process three times. When you arefinished, make sure you give it a once-over to check for any spots that youmissed.EveryinchoftheDutchovenanditslidshouldhaveaglossyfinish.
SQUIRRELSTEW
6servings
1⁄8poundslabbacon,cubed1teaspoonsalt
1⁄4teaspoonpepper2tablespoonsflour
2 squirrels, cleaned, cut into 6 pieces each 2 large onions, thinly sliced 2 cupsbeeforchickenstockLeafytopsof2stalksofcelery1canbeansofyourchoice2largeripetomatoes,peeled1cupfreshcornkernels1teaspoonWorcestershiresauce
Frybaconinthebottomofyourpotuntilbrowned,reservingthefat.Setaside.
Inamediumbowloronaplate,mixsaltandpepperinwiththeflour.Dredgesquirrelinseasonedflourandsautéinthebaconfatuntilitisbrownonallsides.
Addonionsandcookuntilsoft.Addbrothandcelerytops.Coverandbakeat350°Ffor1hour.
Remove celery tops and add the beans, tomatoes, corn, andWorcestershiresauce.Coverandbakeuntilvegetablesaretender—about
30minutes.Skimoffexcessfatandthickengravywithadditionalflourand1⁄2cupcoldwater.Servehottoppedwiththebacon.
COWBOYSOUP
6–8servings
2tablespoonsoliveoil1poundgroundbeef
1mediumonion,diced1russetpotato,diced1canpeas1cangreenbeans
1cancorn
1candicedtomatoes1canbakedbeans
mediumonion,dicedChilipowderBayleaf
NutmegSaltPepper
Addtheoiltothebottomofyourpot.Browngroundbeefandoniontogether. Add remaining ingredients except seasonings. Do not drainvegetables.
Putonalowboiluntilpotatoesareforktender,about20minutes.Addseasoningsandsimmerforanother30minutes.
POTATOESANDBROTH
6–8servings
cupswater
4cupsbeefbroth
2poundsnewpotatoes,peeledanddiced
Heatwaterandbeefbrothtoboiling.
Placepotatoesinthepotandsimmerforabout15minutesoruntilthepotatoesareforktender.Serveasasoupinthepot.
CORNMEALBATTERCAKES
About2dozen3"cakes
1cupyellowcornmeal1⁄2teaspoonbakingsoda1⁄2teaspoonsalt2largeeggs,lightlybeaten11⁄4cupsbuttermilk2tablespoonsshortening,melted
Whiskcornmeal,bakingsoda,andsalttogetherinasmallbowl;setaside.
Combineeggsandbuttermilkinaseparatebowlandthenstirintothedrymixture.Stirinmeltedshortening.
Foreachbattercake,pourabout2tablespoonsbatterontoahot,lightlygreased,invertedDutch-ovenlid.Turnwhenthetopsarecoveredwithbubblesandtheedgesarebrowned.
Servewithsyrup,ifdesired.
FRYBREAD
8servings
Shortening for frying 2 cups all-purpose flour 1⁄2 cup nonfat dry milk 1tablespoonbakingpowder3⁄4teaspoonsalt3⁄4cuplukewarmwaterCinnamonSugar
MeltshorteninginDutchovenforadepthofabout2".
Stirflour,drymilk,bakingpowder,salt,andwatertogether.Kneadonflouredboard.Coverandletstandfor15minutes.
Cutdoughinto8sections,thenflattenorrolloutto2"thick.
Droppiecesofdoughintothehotoiltofryabout2minutesoruntildone.Dredgeincinnamonandsugar.
QUICKANDEASYBREAKFASTCASSEROLE
8–10servings
8slicesbread
2poundssausage,browned16ouncesgratedCheddarcheese12largeeggs1quartmilk
11⁄2teaspoonsdrymustard1teaspoonsalt
Linea12"Dutchovenwithtinfoil.Lightlygreasethefoilwithbutteroroil.
Breakuptheslicesofbreadinto1⁄2"piecesandplacethemintheDutchoven.
Crumblethecookedsausagemeatoverbreadandcoverwithcheese.
Inaseparatebowl,mixeggs,milk,drymustard,and1teaspoonsalt.Pourtheeggmixtureoverthelayeredsausageandbread.
Coverandbakefor35–40minutesat350°F,checkingoccasionally.
CHICKENINAPOT
6–8servings
1(3–4)poundwholefryingchicken1⁄2teaspoonsalt1⁄4teaspoonpepper1teaspoonpoultryseasoning1⁄4teaspoondriedbasil
Washchickenandpatdry.Sprinklecavitywithsalt,pepper,andpoultryseasoning.PlaceinDutchovenandsprinklewithbasil.
Coverandbake4–6hoursat275°Foruntiltender.
EASYCHICKENDINNERONTHECAMPFIRE
6–8servings
3largecarrots,peeledanddiced1headofbroccoli,separatedintoflorets,stalksdiscarded2russetpotatoes,peeledanddicedinto1⁄2"pieces1wholechicken
1cupflour
1tablespoonseasoningsofyourchoiceOilforfrying
Cutchickeninto8parts.Skinchicken.
Mixflourandseasoningsinplasticbag.Place2chickenpartsatatimeinbag and shake. Remove chicken from bag when coated and repeat untilall chicken is coated. Place potatoes in bag and shake. Remove potatoesfrombag.
Put about 1⁄2" of oil in Dutch oven and place on coals. When oil is hot,addchickenandbrownonallsides.Pourtherenderedfatoffthechicken.
Addapproximately1⁄4"ofwarmwater.Placepotatoesandvegetablesoverchicken.Coverpotandplacebackonthecoals.
Cookforabout1hour.Youwillknowitisdonewhenthevegetablesaretenderandthejuicesrunclearwhenyouprickthechicken.
AppendixC
CLOUDCHARTS
Readingcloudscanhelpyoupredictweathersystems.Hereisashortprimeroncloudtypes.
Altocumulus: These large, gray puffs usually indicate an afternoonthunderstormiscoming.Usuallyseeninthemiddlealtitudeinhumidweather.
Altostratus:Thesegray/bluishcloudscovertheentireskyandappearbeforeaweatherfrontinthemiddlealtitude.Youreallycan’tseealotofsunwiththeseclouds—maybejustalittlewherethecloudsareverythin.Thesecloudsusuallyindicatethatwidespread,continuousprecipitationiscoming.
Cirrocumulus:Thesecloudshaveapatchyorpuffywhiteappearance.Theyareicecloudsthatappearinthehighaltitude.Theyindicatethatprecipitationiscomingwithintwenty-fourhours.
Cirrostratus:Thesecloudsareverythinandlooklikeahaloaroundthesunorthemoon.Theyarehigh-altitudecloudsfulloficecrystals.Theyindicaterainorsnowwillarriveinthenexttwenty-fourhours.
Cirrus:Thesearethin,wispycloudsthatappearinthehighaltitude.Theylook a little bit like hair. They travel from west to east and indicate that fairweatheriscoming.
Cumulonimbus:Appearinglikegiantpiecesofcauliflowerinthesky,theseclouds can produce lightening, thunder, hail, and heavy rain. They cansometimesevenformtornadoes.
Cumulus:Withtheirpuffytopsandflatbottoms,theyindicatefairweather.
Theyappearinthelowaltitude.
Mammatus:Theseformunderathunderstormandlookalittlelikepouches.
Theyareevidencethatastormisweakening.
Stratocumulus:Grayorwhitishincolor,thesecloudshaveroundbasesandappearinthelowaltitude.Theyhardlyeverdropanyprecipitation.
Stratus:Ofalltheclouds,thesehangthelowest.Theyaregrayandcovertheentire sky. They look a bit like fog and sometimes are accompanied by a lightdrizzle,buttheytendnottodropprecipitation.
AppendixD
PRIMITIVENAVIGATION
Wheninthewilderness,youmightfindyourselfinasituationthatrequiresyouto change positions or search out a new area. If you do not have access to areliable compass, you may need to rely on primitive navigation to find yourdirection.
Thereareafewthingstorememberinnavigation:
Yourshadowcantellyoualotaboutthedirectionofthesun.
IntheNorthernHemisphere,thesunrisesintheeastandsetsinthewest.
Thesuntravelsasouthernarcacrossthesky,markingthepassageoftimeduringtheday.
Youcanputallthistogetheranddeducethatwhenyouwakeup,themorningsunwillbesoutheast.Whenyougotobed,thesunwillbesouthwest.Duringtheday,ifyourbackistothesun,youarefacingnorth.Ifyouarelookingatthesun,youarelookinginasoutherlydirection.Isay“southerly”becausemostmethodsofprimitivenavigationwillpointyouthecorrectwaybutwillnotgivethepointofcardinaldirectionaccurately.
RULEOFEQUALALTITUDES
Togetacorrecteast-to-westlineusingshadows,youfirstneedtounderstandtherule of equal altitudes: Twice a day—once in the morning and once in theafternoon—thesunwillbeatthesamealtitudeinitsarcacrossthesky.Onlyatthesetwotimeswillanyshadowfromameasurementobject,likeastick,bethe
samelength.Thismeansthatatonlytwotimesduringthedaythismeasurementobject will run perpendicular to a north-to-south line in order to provide a trueeast-to-west line. You’ll need to use any shadow stick for several hours bothbeforeandafternoonwhenthesunsetsonitssouthernpath.
THESHADOWSTICKMETHOD
For ages, the shadow stick method has been the hallmark of primitivenavigation. Travelers have used it to first find an east-to-west line andsubsequentlyanorth-to-southline.Ithasbeenmyexperience,however,thatthismethodcanbehighlyinaccuratebecausesomanypeopledonotunderstandthebasicrules.
SelectingaShadowStick
Selectashadowstickthatisatleast2'long.Youwantsomethingthatyoucandriveintothegroundinaflat,unobstructedareasoitcastsashadow.Thenyoucan track the shadow’s movement while the sun continues on its arc. In themorning,placethestickinthegroundandthenmarktheendoftheshadowwithapegorstake.Thisshadow,inthemorning,willbeinawesterlydirection.Waitatleastacouplehourspastnoonandplaceanotherpeginthegroundattheendof the shadow. Do this about every hour. After placing the final peg in theground,layastickorapieceofcordageacrossthetwomostoutsidepegs.Thatisyoureast-to-westline.
Shadowstickmethod
TRAVELINGSHADOWCOMPASSMETHOD(PATHFINDERSUNCOMPASS)
For a traveling shadow compass, you will select a smaller piece of wood, atleast5"×7",thatwillactasaminiaturetravelingshadowstick.Placethisboardlengthwisetotheeast–westlineyouhavemadebytheshadowstickmethod.
Drillaholeintothecenteroftheboard,andplaceasmallstickinthehole.Thisstick will cast a shadow on the board. Track the movement of the sun aboutevery hour. As a reference, the sun moves about 15° per hour. This time, marktheendoftheshadowrightontheboard.Youcanusearoundpotorsomethingsimilar to make the mark almost like you would with a protractor. Then dividethese lines into 15° increments starting with the center and then two 45° pointsfornorthwestandnortheast.Markeverythingrightontheboard.The90°markwill be on the back of the board. Place a dot on the board every hour through afulldayofsun,andthen,attheendoftheday,connectthedotstoformacurvedscale.Nowyouhavecreatedyourownsundial.
Onceallyourmarkingsarecomplete,drill4smallholesinthecornersoftheboardsothatitcanbeheldabovegroundandkeptlevel.Wheneveryouneedtofindadirectionorestimatethetime,simplyholdtheboardwiththebacktowardthe sun and rotate it until the shadow touches the curved line. Set your sundialcompassonthegroundandthiswillgiveyouthecardinaldirectionsagainfromyourstandingposition.Notethatthissundialwillonlybeaccurateforabout30daysbeforetheshadowlengthstartstochangealongwiththeseasons.
NIGHTTIMENAVIGATION
Therearemanymethodsofusingthestarsandconstellationstofinddirection,buttheycanallgetalittlecomplicated.Agoodfriendofmine,JohnMcCannofSurvivalResources,taughtmeamethodcalledLeft,Up,Right,Down(LURD).This allows you to pick any star (except the North Star because it is too high inthe sky) and does not rely on any particular star group. Look for a star—not aplanet—thatisabovethehorizonbutnottoohighinthesky.Astheearthmoves,the locations of the stars change, and this movement is the principle behind theLURDmethod.Findaforkedstickthatisabout3'inlengthandanice,flatplacewhereyoucanliedownforabout30minutes.Whileyoulieontheground,placethestickintheairwiththeYfacingupwardsandusethatYasaviewfinder.
NowlocateastarinthisY ofyourstick.Getcomfortableandrelaxedbutmakesureyoudonotmovethestick.Afterabout30minutesthestarwillhavemoved.Here is where the acronym LURD comes in: If the star has moved to the left,you are facing north. If it has moved left and up, you are facing northeast. If ithas moved right and down, you are facing southeast. Basically left, up, right,downcorrespondwiththecardinaldirectionsofnorth,east,south,west.
THE MOONMETHOD
You can use the phases of the moon, outside of the new and full moon, todeterminedirectionprettyeasilytoo.Observeanycrescentmoonandtracealinefromtiptotipandthentothehorizon.Thatwillgiveyouasoutherlydirection.
BUSHCRAFTTIP
Useastringtoverifythatthetwomostoutsidepegsfromtheshadowstickareanequaldistancefromthestickforthebestaccuracy.
SolarnavigationfollowsLocalApparentTime,notStandardTime,andmaynotmatchyourwatchifyouhaveone.
Yourwatchcanbeadirectionfinderevenifithasnohands.Ifyou have a watch, point the hour hand toward the sun andhalfway between the hour hand and 12 will be southerly. Ifyou have a digital watch, just draw a watch face with handsonpapertomatchtheoneonyourwrist.
Mossdoesnotalwaysgrowonthenorthsideofthetree,butthe heaviest vegetation will always point southerly to takeadvantageofphotosynthesis.
Ifyoucutdownatree,thegrowthringscanhelpwithdirectionfinding;thetighterringswillbewideronthesouthernside.
Usingyourwatchasacompass
MAKINGASIMPLESHADOWBOARD
Deducing general direction from shadows is pretty reliable, but it can beconfusingifyouhavenothadalotofpractice.Ifthesunissparseoryouareonthe move, it is often hard to keep track of the shadows. You can make a simpleshadowboardtohelpguideyouinthesesituations.Allyouneedisaflatsurface,suchasawoodplank,withsmallridges.MakeacircleontheboardbytracingacuporapotandusinganXtodivideitintofourseparatequadrants.Writelettersin each of the quadrants in clockwise order: NWSE. This will look a differentthan a normal compass, but remember that we are dealing with shadow and suntravel. Make a hole in the center of the board and place a stick that will cast ashadowwithinthecircle.Nowyoucansimplyholdtheboardinfrontofyouandturn,directingtheshadowtomatchthequadrantyouwishtotravel.Thefrontofthe board that you have labeled as the northern quadrant will, in turn, be in thatgeneral direction. For greater precision, pay attention to the time of day. If thesun is low from morning or evening, you will want to place the shadow moreeasterlyorwesterlyinthequadrantsforgreateraccuracy.
Shadowboardquadrants
AppendixE
MINERALHARDNESSSCALE
Viewatextversionofthistable
AppendixF
MEASUREMENTCONVERSIONS
Herearesomesimpleconversionsforthemostcommonlyusedunitsofmeasure.
CUSTOMARYUNITS
METRICUNITS
1inch
2.54centimeters
1foot
30.48centimetersor0.3048meter
1yard
0.914meter
1mile
1.609kilometers
1ounce
28.35grams
1pound
454gramsor0.454kilogram
1fluidounce
29.574milliliters
1quart
0.946liter
1gallon
3.785liters
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Attheendofthedaywemustrealizewheretheknowledgewehavegainedevencomes from to begin with. For me this is a complicated question indeed. As Ibeganthisjourney,Iwasnotatallaccomplishedintheaspectsofsocialmedia,didn’t even know what YouTube was, and—as I have learned—there was notmuchinformationaboutbushcraftinthatmediastream.So,forme,thelearningcamefromtwosources:researchandpracticalexercise.
Reading has always been my favorite form of research, and there aremountainsofbooksoneveryfacetoftheskillsneededforself-relianceifyouarewilling to search them out. Authors such as Hyatt Verrill, Warren HastingsMiller,FrancisBuzzacott,and,ofcourse,GeorgeWashingtonSearsandHoraceKephart have published much on this topic. In the modern day we have manyauthorswhocanhelpusgainknowledgeinthisareaaswell,andsomeofthem,like Bradford Angier and Mors Kochanski, are now considered standards. Wehave access to the Internet, which has opened many doors that were neveravailablethirtyyearsago.TosuchgreatthinkersasVintCerf,whoenabledustopass information across the boundaries of the seas in instant fashion, we owe agreatdeal.
Copyright©2015byF+WMedia,Inc.
Allrightsreserved.
This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in anyformwithoutpermissionfromthepublisher;exceptionsaremadeforbriefexcerptsusedinpublishedreviews.
Publishedby
AdamsMedia,adivisionofF+WMedia,Inc.57LittlefieldStreet,Avon,MA02322.U.S.A.www.adamsmedia.com
ISBN10:1-4405-8796-5
ISBN13:978-1-4405-8796-2
eISBN10:1-4405-8797-3
eISBN13:978-1-4405-8797-9
Manyofthedesignationsusedbymanufacturersandsellerstodistinguishtheirproducts are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in thisbook and F+W Media, Inc. was aware of a trademark claim, the designationshavebeenprintedwithinitialcapitalletters.
InteriorillustrationsbyEricAndrews.CoverdesignbyStephanieHannus.
Coverimages©Clipart.com.
Tables
BTUSFORWOODBURNING
SPECIES
HEATPERCORD(MILLIONBTUS)
% OFGREENASH
EASE OFSPLITTING
SMOKE
SPARKS
COALS
FRAGRANCE
Blacklocust
27.9
140
Difficult
Low
Few
Excellent
Slight
Blackwalnut
22.2
111
Easy
Low
Few
Good
Good
Buroak
26.2
131
Easy
Low
Few
Excellent
Good
Easternredcedar
18.2
91
Medium
Medium
Many
Poor
Excellent
Honeylocust
26.7
133
Easy
Low
Few
Excellent
Slight
Larch(tamarack)
21.8
Easy-med
Many
Fair
Slight
Lodgepolepine
21.1
Easy
Many
Fair
Good
Maple(other)
25.5
128
Easy
Low
Few
Excellent
Good
Mulberry
25.8
129
Easy
Medium
Many
Excellent
Good
Osageorange
32.9
165
Easy
Low
Many
Excellent
Excellent
Ponderosapine
16.2
81
Easy
Medium
Many
Fair
Good
Redoak
24.6
123
Medium
Low
Few
Excellent
Good
RockyMountainjuniper
21.8
109
Medium
Medium
Many
Poor
Excellent
Silvermaple
19.0
95
Medium
Low
Few
Excellent
Good
Spruce
15.5
78
Easy
Medium
Many
Poor
Slight
Sycamore
19.5
98
Difficult
Medium
Few
Good
Slight
Whiteoak
29.1
146
Medium
Low
Few
Excellent
Good
Willow
17.6
88
Easy
Low
Few
Poor
Slight
Returntomaintext
MINERAL
MOHSRELATIVEHARDNESSSCALE
SCRATCHTEST
OTHERFACTS
Talc
1
Scrapeablewithfingernail
Usedintalcumpowder
Gypsum
2
Scrapeablewithfingernail
Ingredientofplaster
Calcite
3
Scratchwithcoppercoin
Usedincement
Fluorite
4
Scratchwithanail
Usedintoothpaste
Apatite
5
Scratchwithanail
Mineralinbone
Feldspar
6
Scratchwithsteelfile
Ingredientinglass,
etc.
Quartz
7
Scratcheswindowglass
Usedinglass,etc.
Topaz
8
Scratchesglass
Gemstone
Corundum
9
Scratchestopaz
Rubiesandsapphires
Diamond
10
Scratchescorundum
“Agirl’sbestfriend”
Returntomaintext
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